Table Of Content

Corrosion Control in Petroleum Production TPC Publication 5 Second Edition Harry G. Byars NACE International 1440 South Creek Drive, Houston, TX 77084 (281) 228-6200, http:/ /www.nace.org The photographs on the cover illustrate various facets of the petroleum production industry where corrosion presents problems and corrosion control methods are used. Clockwise from the upper left are: 1. Oil Well Pumping Unit. 2. Drilling Rig. 3. Gas Condensate Well. 4. Lease Storage Tanks. 5. Offshore Platfo,rms. 6. Gas Processing Facility. 7. Separation Facility Offshore. 8. Emulsion Treaters. Center. Corroded Tubing. Copyright 0 1999 NACE International. All rights reserved. Published by Forbes Custom Publishing, a Division of Forbes Inc. No portion of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system without written permission from the copyright holder. CIP Data is available. Printed in Canada. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 ISBN 0-8281-12744 The objective of this revision of "Corrosion Control in Petroleum Production" is to provide an expanded, updated introduction, overview, and reference on the subject. It is written for people who are not corrosion specialists, but who have an interest in and/or responsibility for corrosion control in oil and gas production operations. A goal is to provide the information and terminology necessary for the reader to be able to communicate with corrosion specialists, consultants, suppliers, and vendors. It is hoped that the addition of such items as sample coating specifications, check lists, guidelines, and field examples will enhance its value as a reference.The book covers the basic causes and types of oilfield corrosion, methods of control and related material. While some theory is presented, the practical aspects are emphasized. Examples, charts, and guidelines are given where appropriate. Reference and bibliographies are cited for each chapter. Although this edition is listed as the "Second Edition,,' in reality it is the third writing. The original book, published in 1958 under the title of "Corrosion of Oil- and Gas-Well Equipment,,' was a joint effort of the American Petroleum Institute (API) and NACE International, The Corrosion Society. NACE published an expanded version in 1979 asTPC 5 with the present title. API kept the original book as Book 2 of their Vocational Training Series for field operating personnel. A second edition (1990) is still available from API (1220 L Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005).Those of you who are familiar with both books will recognize that some of the text and many of the illustrations, particular photographs of corrosion failures, are the same in both editions. Once again proving that, when it comes to corrosion, some things never change. The previous edition was dedicated to the memory of Dorsey R. Fincher, who was chairman of its Editorial Committee. I would like to rededicate this edition to Dorsey, and to add the names of two gentlemen who greatly influenced my career as a corrosion engineer and my activity in NACE. Thus, I would like to dedicate this volume to the memory of J. H. (Sully) Sullivan, a long-time super- visor who was responsible for getting me involved in NACE activities, and to the memory of W .C. (Cliff) Koger, a mentor in my NACE and API activities and former NACE President. I must recognize and publicly thank several people for their help and contributions on this book. First, I'd like to thank the TPC Group Committee T-1 reviewers, Erwin Buck, Donald Drake, and R. N. (Bob) Tuttle. Not only did they provide a technical review that contributed greatly to the accuracy of the technical content, they provided editorial comments and suggestions that immensely added to the book's clarity and readability. Second, I'd like to express my appreciation to other folks and companies for their contributions: Lee Bone and ARCO Exploration and ProductionTechnology, Plano,TX, for allowing the use of their protective coatings specifications; T F: (Ted) Bruno and Metallurgical Consultants, Inc., Houston, TX, for supplying the photomicrographs of metallurgical structure, and K. B. (Ken) Tator, Sr. and KTA-Tator, Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, for furnishing the photographs of coating inspection equipment. I would also like to acknowledge ARCO Exploration and Production Technology's generosity upon my retirement for presenting me with the slides and photographs I have collected during my career; thus, they were available for illustrations in this book. Third, I want to thank the NACE book editor, Lori R.Tourangeau, for turning a manuscript into a book. In addition, a special thanks to Warren I. Pollock who provided extremely valuable help in the final editing. Last, but in no way least, I must express my appreciation and love for my wife, Shirley; who, not only has put up with being married to a corrosion engineer for more than 40 years, but read, at least once, every word in the manuscript and offered many suggestions that helped clear up ambiguous statements and improve the readability for the "noncorrosion" reader. In closing, I would like to thankT-1 for the opportunity for preparing this edition. Most appreciatively, -Harry G. Byars xiii TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ................................................. Foreword XIII ...................................... Chapter 1: Introduction 1 .................................................. Corrosive Environments 2 External Environments ....................................................... 2 AtmosphericCorrosion. .......................................................... 2 Soil Corrosion .................................................................. 2 Submerged Corrosion. ........................................................... 2 ....................................................... Internal Environments 3 ......................................... Equipment. Systems. and Facilities 6 Wells ..................................................................... 6 Artificial Lift Wells ............................................................... 7 Suckerrodpumpingwells ............................................................. 7 ESPpumpedwells ................................................................... 8 Hydraulicpumpedwells .............................................................. 8 Progressive cavity pumped wells ....................................................... 8 Gas-liftedoilwells ................................................................... 8 Flowing Wells .................................................................. 8 Oil wells ............................................................................ 8 Gaswells ........................................................................... 9 Auxilian/equipment .................................................................. 9 Casing Corrosion ................................................................ 9 Externalcasing corrosion ............................................................. 9 Internal casinghubing annulus ......................................................... 9 ......................................................... Surface Equipment 10 Wellheads and Christmas Trees ................................................... 10 Flow Lines .................................................................... 10 Processing Equipment .......................................................... 10 StorageTanks ................................................................. 11 Water Systems ................................................................. 12 ......................................................... Drilling Operations 12 ................................................... Special Environments 12 Enhanced Oil Recovery Projects .............................................. 12 WAGlnjection ................................................................. 12 In-Situ Combustion ............................................................. 13 Coal Seam Gas ............................................................ 13 ........................................................ OffshoreOperations 13 SubmergedZone ............................................................... 14 Splashzone ................................................................... 15 AtmosphericZone .............................................................. 15 .................................................. Corrosion Under Insulation 15 ............................................................. Summary 16 ............................................................ References 17 ........................................................... Bibliography 17 Appendix 1A : Internal Corrosion and Corrosion Control ...................................... in Oil and Gas Production 18 iii ................................. Chapter 2: Corrosion Basics 23 ............................................. Why Iron and Steels Corrode 23 .................................................... Corrosion Reactions 23 Corrosion Variables ........................................................ 25 Conductivity. .............................................................. 25 pH ....................................................................... 26 DissolvedGases ........................................................... 26 DissolvedOxygen .............................................................. 27 Dissolved Carbon Dioxide (C02) .................................................. 29 Dissolved Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S). ................................................ 31 ........................................................ Otherlnfluences 32 Dissolved Organic Acids ..................................................... 32 Microbiological ............................................................ 32 ...................................................... PhysicalVariables 33 Temperature .............................................................. 33 Pressure .................................................................. 33 Velocity .................................................................. 33 ............................................................ References 34 ........................................................... Bibliography 34 Appendix 2A: Solubility of Oxygen in Water ........................ 35 .............. Chapter 3: Forms of Corrosion (Types of Corrosion) 39 ....................................................... General Corrosion 40 ..................................................... Localized Corrosion 41 Pitting .................................................................... 43 Concentration Cells ......................................................... 44 CreviceCorrosion .............................................................. 44 OxygenTubercles .............................................................. 46 Differential Aeration Cells ........................................................ 46 Scaleand Deposits ............................................................. 47 Pitting andMetals .......................................................... 48 Carbonand Low-Alloy Steel ...................................................... 48 Corrosion-Resistant Alloys (CRAs). ................................................ 48 OtherAlloys ................................................................... 49 .................................................... Bimetallic Corrosion 49 ...................... Erosion-Corrosion or Impingement and Wear-Corrosion 53 ............................................................. Cavitation 56 .................................................. lntergranular Corrosion 56 ............................................... Hydrogen-Induced Failures 57 Hydrogen Blistering ........................................................ 57 Hydrogen Embrittlement .................................................... 59 Sulfide Stress Cracking (SSC) ................................................ 59 High Temperature Attack .................................................... 60 ...................................................... Corrosion Fatigue 61 Fatigue of Metals in Air ..................................................... 62 The Effect of a Corrosive Environment on Fatigue Life ............................ 62 iv CORROSION CONTROL IN PETROLEUM PRODUCTION ................................................ Stress Corrosion Cracking 64 Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels ................................................ 64 High-Strength Steels ....................................................... 64 Copper-Based Alloys ....................................................... 65 Aluminum Alloys .......................................................... 65 Nickel and Nickel-Based Alloys ............................................... 65 Titanium and Titanium Alloys ................................................ 65 ................................ Liquid Metal Embrittlement (Stress Alloying) 66 ............................................................ References 67 Bibliography ........................................................... 67 ........................ Chapter 4: Materials Selection- Metals 69 BasicMetallurgy ....................................................... 69 Crystal Ii ne Structure ........................................................ 69 .................................................................... Alloys 71 Steels ................................................................ 72 StructureofSteel .......................................................... 72 NamesforSteels ........................................................... 72 ................................................. Heat Treatment of Steels 73 Annealing ................................................................ 73 Normalizing ............................................................... 74 Spheroidizing ............................................................. 74 QuenchingandTempering .................................................. 74 Carbide Distribution ........................................................ 74 Localized Heat Treatments ................................................... 74 Ringworm Corrosion. ........................................................... 74 Weld Line Corrosion ............................................................ 75 Alloys ................................................................ 75 ......................................................... FerrousAlloys 76 Carbon and Alloy Steels ..................................................... 76 StainlessSteels ............................................................ 76 Martensitic Stainless Steels ...................................................... 77 Ferritic Stainless Steels .......................................................... 77 Austenitic Stainless Steels ....................................................... 78 Precipitation Hardening (PHI Stainless Steels ....................................... 78 Duplex Stainless Steels. ......................................................... 78 Castlrons ................................................................. 79 Iron-Nickel-Chromium Alloys ................................................ 80 ...................................................... Nonferrous Alloys 80 Nickel-Based Alloys ........................................................ 80 Copper-Based Alloys ....................................................... 80 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys ............................................. 81 ............................................. Specifications and Standards 81 References ............................................................ 83 ........................................................... Bibliography 83 TABLE OF CONTENTS V .................. Chapter 5: Materials Selection- Nonmetallics 85 ........................................................... Introduction 85 Wood .................................................................... 85 Cement and Concrete ....................................................... 85 Cement-Asbestos .......................................................... 86 CeramicTile ...............................................................8 7 Plastic (Polymeric) Materials. ............................................. 87 Thermoplastics ............................................................ 87 Thermosetting ............................................................. 89 Nonmetallic Pipe .......................................................9 0 Joining Methods ........................................................... 90 Heatwelding .................................................................. 90 SolventWelding ............................................................... 90 ThreadedConnections .......................................................... 91 Application of Nonmetallic Pipe .............................................. 91 Chemical Resistance ............................................................ 91 Mechanical Properties ........................................................... 91 Typical Applications of Pipe .................................................. 92 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nonmetallic Pipe ............................. 92 Fiberglass (FRP) Tanks .................................................. 93 Fiberglass (FRP) Sucker Rods ............................................. 94 ............................................................ Elastomers 94 Sealsand Packing .......................................................... 94 TankLiners ............................................................... 95 ............................................................ References 96 ............................... Chapter 6: Protective Coatings 97 Introduction ........................................................... 97 Coating Classification or Type ............................................ 98 ServiceEnvironment ....................................................... 98 Atmosphericcoatings ........................................................... 98 Immersioncoatings ............................................................. 98 Underground (or buried) coatings ................................................. 99 CoatingThickness .......................................................... 99 Thinfilmcoatings .............................................................. 99 Thickfilm coatings. ............................................................. 99 Chemical Composition ...................................................... 99 Organiccoatings .............................................................. 100 Inorganiccoatings ............................................................. 100 Curing Methods ........................................................... 100 Airdried ..................................................................... I00 Forcecured ................................................................... 101 Bakedcoatings ................................................................ 101 Fusion-bondedcoatings ........................................................ 101 Reinforced Coatings ....................................................... 101 ................................................... Coating Formulation 101 Pigment ................................................................. 101 Vehicle .................................................................. 102 vi CORROSION CONTROL IN PETROLEUM PRODUCTION ...................................................... Coating Systems 103 Primers. ................................................................. 103 Barrier primers. ............................................................... 103 Inhibitive primers ............................................................. 103 Sacrificial primers ............................................................. 104 Intermediate Coats ........................................................ 104 Topcoats ................................................................ 105 .................................................. . Coating Application , 105 Design forcoating ........................................................ 105 SurfacePreparation ....................................................... 107 Blastcleaning ................................................................. 108 Anchor pattern ................................................................ 110 Coating the Structure ...................................................... 112 ............................................................ Inspection 113 InspectionTiming ......................................................... 113 InspectionTools .......................................................... 113 Filmthicknessgages ........................................................... 114 Holiday detectors. ............................................................. 114 Coating of Production Facilities and Equipment ............................. 115 Atmospheric Protection .................................................... 115 VesselsandTanks. ........................................................ 116 TubularGoods ........................................................... 117 Flowlines, Gathering Systems, Injection Lines, and Piping ....................... 120 Water system ................................................................. 121 Offshore Platforms ........................................................ 121 Splashzone .................................................................. 121 Atmosphericzone ............................................................. 121 Pipelinecoatings ......................................................... 123 ........................................................... References 125 Appendix 6A: NACE International Protective Coating Standards that May Be Used in ........................ Petroleum Production Facilities and Lines 127 Appendix 6B: Fabrication Requirements for ................... Internally Coated Production Vessels and Tanks 129 - Appendix 6C: Coating Specification Internal Tank Coating ............................... Application of Thin Film Coatings 133 Appendix 6D: Excerpts from a Coating Specification for External Coating for Offshore Structures and ............................... Severely Corrosive Environments 163 .............................. Chapter 7: Cathodic Protection 165 .......................................................... Introduction 165 ........................................... Cathodic Protection Principles 165 .......................................... Criteria for Cathodic Protection 166 ............................................ Cathodic Protection Systems 169 TABLE OF CONTENTS vii Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection Systems. ................................ 169 Galvanic Anodes .............................................................. 169 Magnesium anodes ................................................................ 170 Aluminum anodes ................. ............................. 170 Zincanodes ....................................................................... 170 Design and Installation of Sacrificial Anode Systems ................................ 171 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection System ................................ 171 ImpressedCurrentAnodes ...................................................... 172 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Power Sources .............................. 174 Cathodic Protection Interference ................................................. 174 Survey and Test Methods in Cathodic Protection ............................ 174 Application of Cathodic Protection to Oil and Gas Production Equipment ....... 175 Well Casings ............................................................. 175 Flowlines, Gathering Lines. Distribution Lines. Injection Lines and Pipelines ........ 177 Surface Equipment and Vessels ............................................. 177 Oil Storage Tanks ......................................................... 180 Internal Protection ............................................................. 180 External Protection ............................................................ 180 Offshore Drilling and Production Structures ................................... 181 Platform Design ............................................................... 181 Criteria for Protection .......................................................... 182 GalvanicAnodes .............................................................. 182 Impressed Current Systems ..................................................... 183 SubseaStructures ............................................................. 183 .............................................. Role of Protective Coatings 183 References ........................................................... 185 Appendix 7A: Survey and Test Methods in Cathodic Protection .......1 86 Potential Measurements ................................................ 186 Pipelines ................................................................. 186 Casing Potential Profile Tool ................................................ 188 .................................................. Current Flow (IR Drop) 189 .................................. Soil (or Water) Resistivity Measurements 190 ........................................... Current Requirement Surveys 190 Pipeline ................................................................. 191 Wellcasing .............................................................. 191 Casing potential profile tool .......................................................... 191 Eloglsurveys ..................................................................... 191 .............................. Chapter 8: ChemicalTreatment 193 .......................................................... Introduction 193 ..................................... Fundamentals of Corrosion Inhibitors 193 ........................................... inorganic Corrosion Inhibitors 194 Anodic Inhibitors. ......................................................... 194 Cathodic Inorganic Inhibitors ................................................ 194 ............................................ Organic Corrosion Inhibitors 194 Corrosion Inhibitor Formulations ............................................ 195 Corrosion Inhibitor Properties ............................................... 196 lnhibitscorrosion .................................................................. 197 Solubility/dispersibility. ............................................................. 197 viii CORROSION CONTROL IN PETROLEUM PRODUCTION Partitioning ....................................................................... 198 Compatibility of corrosion inhibitors with other chemicals ................................ 198 Emulsification properties ............................................................ 198 Pourpoint ........................................................................ 198 Freeze point .............. ..................................................... 198 Freeze-thaw stability ....... ..................................................... 198 Thermalstabilit y ................................................................... 198 Corrosiveness ..................................................................... 199 Mobility ............. ....................................................... 199 Foaming properties ... ....................................................... 199 Compatibility with downstream processes ............................................. 199 Environmentalconcerns ............................................................ 199 .............................................. Selection of the Inhibitor., 200 ................................................... Inhibitor Application 200 ............................................... Inhibition of Producing Wells 200 Formation Squeeze Treatment ................................................... 201 Tubing Displacement Treatment ................................................. 201 Nitrogen Squeeze and Nitrogen Displacement Treatments ........................... 202 Partial Tubing Displacement and Yo-yo Treatments ................................. 202 Treating Strings ............................................................... 202 Gas-lift Wells ................................................................. 202 Hydraulic Pump Wells .......................................................... 203 Treatments Down the Casing-Tubing Annulus ...................................... 203 Batch-and-flush treatment ........................................................... 203 Batch-and-circulate treatment ........................................................ 203 Extended batchtreatment ........................................................... 203 Automated (semi-batch) treatment .................................................... 204 Continuous treatment with bypass flush ............................................... 204 NACERP0195-95 .............................................................. 204 Inhibition of Surface Facilities ............................................... 204 Flowlines and Gathering Systems ................................................ 204 Production and Plant Facilities ................................................... 205 Vesselsandtanks .................................................................. 205 Piping systems ................... ............................................. 205 Gas Handling Systems and Plants ................................................ 205 Gascoolers ....................................................................... 206 Aminesweeteningequipment ....................................................... 206 Cooling water systems ................... ........................................ 207 Heatinglcoolingmedia .............................................................. 207 ................................................ Water Injection Systems 207 ............................................... Other Types of Inhibitors 207 Well Acidizing Inhibitors ................................................... 207 ................................................ Volatile Corrosion Inhibitors 208 ......................................... Summary of Corrosion Inhibition 209 ........................................................... References 210 .......................................................... Bibliography 210 Appendix 8A: Downhole Corrosion Inhibitor Application ............................... Techniques for Oil and Gas Wells 211 FormationSqueeze ........................................................ 211 Tubing Displacement ...................................................... 212 ........................... Nitrogen Formation Squeeze or Tubing Displacement 214 Partial Tubing Displacement and Yo-Yo Treatment ............................. 215 ........................................................... Treating String 216 Weighted Liquids ......................................................... 217 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix

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