Coral Reef Remote Sensing: A Guide for Mapping, Monitoring and Management PDF
Preview Coral Reef Remote Sensing: A Guide for Mapping, Monitoring and Management
James A. Goodman Samuel J. Purkis Stuart R. Phinn Editors Coral Reef Remote Sensing A Guide for Mapping, Monitoring and Management Coral Reef Remote Sensing James A. Goodman Samuel J. Purkis • Stuart R. Phinn Editors Coral Reef Remote Sensing A Guide for Mapping, Monitoring and Management 123 Editors James A.Goodman Samuel J.Purkis Electrical andComputer Engineering Oceanographic Center, National Universityof PuertoRico atMayagüez CoralReef Institute Mayagüez, PR NovaSoutheastern University USA Dania Beach, FL USA and Stuart R.Phinn HySpeed Computing School ofGeography, Planning Miami, FL and EnvironmentalManagement USA Universityof Queensland Brisbane, QLD Australia ISBN 978-90-481-9291-5 ISBN 978-90-481-9292-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9292-2 SpringerDordrechtHeidelbergNewYorkLondon LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2012954527 AllRightsReservedforChapters2,5,6,7,9,11and13. 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Printedonacid-freepaper SpringerispartofSpringerScience?BusinessMedia(www.springer.com) Foreword and Onward Whilesailingaroundtheworldin1834,CharlesDarwinwassoimpressedwiththe pristinecoralreefsthatheobservedintheAtlantic,Pacific,andIndianoceansthat he devoted his first book, ‘‘The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs’’, pub- lished in 1842, to an analysis of how atolls, fringing and coast-hugging barrier reefswereformed.InVoyageoftheBeagle,henotes,‘‘...travellerstellusofthe vast dimensions of the Pyramids and other great ruins, but how utterly insignifi- cant are the greatest of these, when compared to these mountains of stone accu- mulated by the agency of various minute and tender animals!’’ If Darwin could magically retrace his voyage in the twenty-first century, he would likely be shocked at how much has been lost of that lacey garland of reef plantsandanimalsthatoncespannedtheshallowbluewatersoftheglobebetween 30(cid:3)Northand30(cid:3)South.Buthewouldlikelyalsobeheartenedbythetechnologies thatnowexistthatforthefirsttimemakeitpossibletoaccuratelyassessthenature of the changes and to take actions to reverse the alarming trends. This remarkable book,Coral Reef Remote Sensing: A Guide for Mapping, MonitoringandManagementforthefirsttimedocumentsthefullrangeofremote sensing systems, methodologies and measurement capabilities essential to under- standingmorefullythestatusandchangesovertimeofcoralreefsglobally.Such information is essential and provides the foundation for policy development and for implementing management strategies to protect these critically endangered ecosystems. In Darwin’s time, the ocean seemed so vast, so resilient, that it seemed there was little humans could do to alter its nature. Even more than a century later, Rachel Carson in her 1951 Classic, ‘‘The Sea Around Us’’, imagined the ocean wassomehowtoobigtofail.‘‘Eventuallyman...foundhiswaybacktothesea’’, she wrote. ‘‘And yet he has returned to his mother sea only on her terms. He cannot control or change the ocean as, in his brief tenancy of earth, he has subdued and plundered the continents’’. Now we know: unprecedented human activity is driving global warming, climate change, sea level rise, pollution, acidification of the ocean, and loss of species and entire ecosystems, including the focus of this volume—coral reefs. v vi ForewordandOnward Whileoccupyinglessthan1 %oftheareaoftheocean,shallowcoralreefsystems host an extraordinary diversity offish (about 25 % of the known marine species) and twice as many phyla of animals as the notably rich and diverse rainforests of theworld.Ifcoralreefsareintrouble,theoceanisintrouble.Thatisbadnewsfor the planet, and therefore for us. ArecentJointStatementbytheheadsoftheIntergovernmentalOceanographic Commission, the United Nations Environment Program, and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature states: Globally, best estimates suggest that about 10% of coral reefs are already degraded, manybeyondrecovery,andanother20%arelikelytodeclinefurtherwithinthenext20 years.Atleasttwothirdsoftheworld’scoralreefsmaycollapseecologicallywithinthe lifetime of our grandchildren, unless we implement effective management of these eco- systemsasanurgentpriority. Thisassessmentmaybeoptimistic.The2011WorldResourcesInstitutereport, ‘‘ReefsatRisk’’notesthatthree-quartersofalloftheworld’scoralreefsareatrisk from overfishing, pollution, and the effects of climate change. In the Philippines, 70 %ofthecoralreefsaregoneandonly5 %areestimatedtobeingoodcondition. In the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, the decline may be as much as 80 % in 30 years.Morethan100countrieshavecoralreefswithintheirjurisdiction,andsome islandnations,withsmalllandmasshavelargeoceanassetscenteredoncoralreefs. Effective management of these valuable ecosystems requires the ability to docu- ment their present status and monitor changes over time. Duringthepasttwodecades,therehavebeenremarkableadvancesintheability toremotelymeasureandmonitorthehealthandstatusofcoralreefsystemsacross theplanetaswellastheconditionsofthewaterandsurroundingenvironment.The techniques documented in this volume complement on-site observations and together,providecriticallyimportantinsightsnecessaryfor effectivemanagement. Included here is an overview of technologies for reef mapping, technical information useful for scientists and other research and policy development experts,ideasforapplicationofremotesensingtoresolvequestions,andthoughts about future remote sensing technologies and their applications. Iwholeheartedlyrecommendthisbooktoscientists,students,managers,remote sensingspecialists,andanyonewhowouldliketobeinspiredbytheingeniousnew ways that have been developed and are being applied to solve one of the world’s greatest challenges: how to take care of the ocean that takes care of us. Ifithadbeenavailablein1834,CharlesDarwinwouldsurelyhavehadacopy on his shelf. Sylvia A. Earle National Geographic Explorer in Residence Founder, Mission Blue Preface Overview. Remote sensing stands as the defining technology in our ability to monitorcoralreefs,aswellastheirbiophysicalpropertiesandassociatedprocesses, atregionaltoglobalscales.WithoverwhelmingevidencethatmuchofEarth’sreefs are in decline, our need for large scale, repeatable assessments of reefs has never beensogreat.Fortunately,thelasttwodecadeshaveseenarapidexpansioninthe abilityforremotesensingtomapandmonitorcoralreefecosystems,aswellasthe overlyingwater column and surroundingenvironment. Remote sensing is now a fundamental tool for the mapping, monitoring and management of coral reef ecosystems. Remote sensing offers repeatable, quanti- tative assessments of habitat and environmental characteristics over spatially extensive areas. As the multi-disciplinary field of coral reef remote sensing con- tinues tomature, resultsdemonstrate thatthe techniquesandcapabilitiescontinue to improve. New developments allow reef assessments and mapping to be per- formed with higher accuracy, across greater spatial areas, and with greater tem- poral frequency. The increased level of information that remote sensing now makes available also allows more complex scientific questions to be addressed. As defined for this book, remote sensing includes the vast array of geospatial datacollectedfromland,water,ship,airborne,andsatelliteplatforms.Thebookis organized by technology, including: visible and infrared sensing using photo- graphic, multispectral and hyperspectral instruments; active sensing using light detection and ranging (LiDAR); acoustic sensing using ship, autonomous under- water vehicle (AUV), and in-water platforms; and thermal and radar instruments. EmphasisandAudience.Thisbookservesmultipleroles.Itoffersanoverviewof the current state-of-the-art technologies for reef mapping, provides detailed technical information for coral reef remote sensing specialists, imparts insight on thescientificquestionsthatcanbetackledusingthistechnology,andalsoincludes a foundation for those new to reef remote sensing. The individual sections of the book include introductory overviews offour main types of remotely sensed data used to study coral reefs, followed by specific examples demonstrating practical applicationsofthedifferenttechnologiesbeingdiscussed.Guidelinesforselecting vii viii Preface the most appropriate sensor for particular applications are provided, including an overview of how to utilize remote data as an effective tool in science and management. The text is richly illustrated with examples of each sensing tech- nology applied to a range of scientific, monitoring and management questions in reefs around the world. As such, the book is broadly accessible to a general audience, as well as students, managers, remote sensing specialists, and anyone else working with coral reef ecosystems. Outline and Roadmap. The book is divided into five sections, with the first four highlighting different suites of remote sensing technologies and the fifth section discussing the best use of remote sensing in effective science and management. Eachofthefourtechnologysectionsbeginswithanintroductorychapterfollowed byaseriesofapplicationchaptersthatdiscusseachtechnologyinmoredetailand define the applications for which they are best suited. • Section I. Visible and Infrared Remote Sensing. Chapters1–4introducepassiveopticalremotesensing(i.e.,sensingtechnologies thatrelyonvisibleandinfraredspectraofreflectedsunlightasthebasisforimage measurements). These technologies include aerial and astronaut photography, andmultispectralandhyperspectralaerialandsatelliteimaging.Suchtechniques are best suited for assessing habitat characteristics (e.g., habitat type, composi- tion, and distribution) in clear, shallow (\20 m) water. The typical spatial resolution,orpixelsize,employedinvisibleandinfraredremotesensingranges fromfine(\0.5–5 m)tomoderate(10–30m)scale.Visibleandinfraredremote sensing is also suitable for assessing associated surrounding environmental conditions at varying degrees of detail (e.g., water properties, bathymetry, and coastal/islandland characteristics). • Section II. LiDAR Remote Sensing. Chapters 5–7 introduce active optical remote sensing (i.e., technologies that measurethereturnsignalofanactivelyemittedenergysource).Thistechnology is centered on LiDAR, but also includes an evolving set of techniques that merge LiDAR and hyperspectral imagery. LiDAR data are commonlyacquired from aircraft platforms and are best suited for measurements of water depth, seafloor topography, geomorphology, and recently general habitat categories (e.g., broad cover types, such as reef versus seagrass versus sand) in clear, moderatelydeep(\40 m)water.Spatialresolutionvariesasafunctionofdepth, butistypicallyatrelativelyfine(1–5 m)scale.EmergingtechniquesinLiDAR sensorsandanalysistechniquesarealsoextendingthelevelofdetailthatcanbe achieved for reef characteristics and surrounding water properties. • Section III. Acoustic Remote Sensing. Chapters 8–10 present the field of acoustic remote sensing (i.e., sensors that measure sound, either sound emitted directly from objects/organisms or return signals from actively emitted pulses of sound). Acoustic remote sensing is pri- marilyaship-basedtechnology,butisalsodeployedonAUVsorusingin-water platforms.Thebreadthofplatformsavailableforacousticremotesensingallows Preface ix collectionofacousticdataacrossarangeofwaterdepths,fromshallow(5–20m) to deep ([100 m). Spatial resolution for this technology typically ranges from fine(1–10 m)tomoderate(20–50 m)scale.Acoustictechniquesarebestsuited forassessingwaterdepth,seafloortopography,geomorphiczones(withvariable roughness), general habitat categories (e.g., distinguishing biological cover types, as well as hard- versus soft-bottom habitats), water velocity, and fish presence/distribution. As with other technologies, advances in this field are currently extending the level of detail and types of information that can be retrieved from acousticremote sensing. • Section IV. Thermal and Radar Remote Sensing. Chapters11–13introducetwotechnologiesthatcommonlycenteronmeasuring the environment surrounding coral reef ecosystems. Thermal remote sensing is an example of passive optical remote sensing, which focuses on measuring emitted heat, and hence temperature of the water surface. Thermal remote sensing is predominantly a satellite-based technology that typically operates in coarse ([1 km) scale spatial resolutions. Radio detection and ranging (Radar) remote sensing is an active sensing technology, which uses radio waves to measure the range, altitude, direction, and speed of sea surface characteristics (i.e., waves and currents). Radar remote sensing includes both ground-based systems and satellite platforms, ranging from moderate (25–50 m) to coarse ([1 km) scale spatial resolution. Both thermal and radar technologies provide valuable information on processes affecting coral reefs. • Section V. Effective Use of Remote Sensing in Science and Management. Chapters 14–15 explain and demonstrate the concepts of validation and accu- racyassessment ofimage-basedmapproducts,aswellashowtomeasurethese parametersandeffectivelyutilizetheminscienceandmanagementapplications. The need to understand the accuracy and reliability of remote sensing products is highlighted as a fundamental component of effective decision-making using this data. Discussion in these chapters focuses on recognizing the different strengths and weaknesses of the various remote sensing techniques and illus- trating which techniques are best suited for different specific goals. Additional discussion in this section includes the importance of developing an under- standing between the needs and expectations of those using remote sensing image products and those producing products. Thefollowingtablesrepresentthebookoutlineinacondensedformat,providing aquick-lookroadmaptothetypicalcapabilitiesthatcharacterizeeachtechnology. Note that this is a summary only, and thus represents a simplified view of the different aspects of coral reef remotesensing. x Preface Datatype Assessmentlevel Appropriatetechnology Habitat Detailedspeciesassessment FieldObservationandMeasurement Habitattypeandcomposition Chapter3.Multispectral Shallowwater(\20m) Chapter4.Hyperspectral Chapter7.LiDAR/Hyperspectral Generalhabitatcategories Chapter2.Photography Shallowwater(\20m) Chapter6.LiDAR Generalhabitatcategories Chapter6.LiDAR Moderatedepth(20–50m) Chapter9.Acoustic Generalhabitatcategories Chapter9.Acoustic Deepwater([50m) Chapter10.DeepAcoustic Geomorphology Reefandlandscapelevel Chapter2.Photography Shallowwater(\20m) Chapter3.Multispectral Chapter4.Hyperspectral Chapter6.LiDAR Chapter7.LiDAR/Hyperspectral Reefandlandscapelevel Chapter6.LiDAR Moderatedepth(20–50m) Chapter9.Acoustic Reefandlandscapelevel Chapter9.Acoustic Deepwater([50m) Chapter10.DeepAcoustic Waterproperties Generalwatercomposition Chapter4.Hyperspectral Shallowwater(\20m) Chapter7.LiDAR/Hyperspectral Generalwatercomposition Chapter6.LiDAR Moderatedepth(20–50m) Bathymetry Highaccuracydepth Chapter6.LiDAR Shallowwater(\20m) Chapter7.LiDAR/Hyperspectral Moderateaccuracydepth Chapter3.Multispectral Shallowwater(\20m) Chapter4.Hyperspectral Highaccuracydepth Chapter6.LiDAR Moderatedepth(20–50m) Chapter9.Acoustic Highaccuracydepth Chapter9.Acoustic Deepwater([50 m) Watertemperature Watersurfacetemperature Chapter12.Thermal Currents/waves Watersurfacecharacteristics Chapter13.Radar
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