Construction of an Adaptive E-learning Environment to Address Learning Styles, and Investigation

225 Pages·2007·2.97 MB·English

by  Christian Wolf

!PREFACE

Construction of an Adaptive E-learning Environment
to Address Learning Styles and an Investigation
of the Effect of Media Choice

Christian Wolf
Diplom-Informatiker (FH) Digitale Medien
(equivalent to BCompSc(Hons) Digital Media)

This exegesis is submitted with the durable record of the project materials on
DVD in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
Doctor of Philosophy.

School of Education
Design and Social Context Portfolio
RMIT University
January 2007
Certification i

Certification

I hereby state that
a. except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work has been
carried out by myself alone;
b. the work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify
for any other academic award;
c. the content of the exegesis is the result of work which has been carried out
since the official commencement date of the approved research program;
and
d. any editorial work, paid or unpaid, carried out by a third party is
acknowledged.
e. ethics procedures and guidelines have been followed.

Christian Wolf Melbourne, January 2007
Acknowledgements ii

Acknowledgements

This PhD by project was partially funded by a scholarship from the German Academic
Exchange Service and a grant from the Telematics Course Development Fund Trust.
Thanks to my supervisors Tony Owens, Andrew Seaton, Nicola Yelland, and Robyn Blake
for their comments on my work and on earlier versions of this exegesis. Additional thanks
for helpful comments on the statistics sections go to John Izard, Cliff DaCosta and Boyka
Bratanova.
I would also like to express my gratitude to the 63 multimedia students from RMIT
University (TAFE division), who participated in the evaluation of iWeaver, as well as to all
the ADoM staff members for their support and cooperation.
A big “thank you” goes to all my friends. You were my social network that kept me out of
the dark holes of doing a PhD. It was always rewarding and enlightening to socialise with
all of you and you kept me sane. Special thanks to Stefan G. and Stefan K., who both
helped me greatly with practical and emotional support. Similarly, I would like to express
my gratitude to Tess and Floyd for their thorough proof-reads and insights.
Additional cheers must go to my housemates (for putting up with me), to Apples (for
encouragement and constructive criticism), to Ben and Rosalba (for asking the right
questions), to Sampo and Lil (for many great discussions), to Anna (for the spoken
components), to Jeremy Parker (for his invaluable support during the recording sessions)
and to everyone who provided feedback on preliminary versions of iWeaver.
Thanks to my parents who supported me and believed in me. Thank you both for never
losing faith that I would complete this PhD. You were always there for me and I always
felt safe and supported.
This work is dedicated to my family and friends.

Christian Wolf
Related Publications iii

Related Publications

Parts of the background and method chapter of this exegesis have been published before in
conference proceedings.
Wolf, C. (2002). iWeaver: Towards an Interactive Web-Based Adaptive Learning
Environment to Address Individual Learning Styles. Paper presented at the Interactive
Computer Aided Learning Workshop (ICL2002), Villach, Austria.
http://www.adaptive-learning.net/media/pdf/2002_ICL_Paper.pdf
Wolf, C. (2003). iWeaver: Towards ‘Learning Style’-based E-learning in Computer
Science Education. In T. Greening & R. Lister (Eds.), Conferences in Research and
Practice in Information Technology (Vol. 20, pp. 273-279). Adelaide, Australia: Australian
Computer Society.
http://www.adaptive-learning.net/media/pdf/2003_ACE_Paper.pdf
Table of Contents iv

Table of Contents
CERTIFICATION.......................................................................................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.........................................................................................................ii
RELATED PUBLICATIONS.....................................................................................................iii
LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................................viii
LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................................................................ix
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................1
1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................3
1.1 OVERVIEW.....................................................................................................................3
1.2 COMPONENTS OF THIS PHD...........................................................................................3
1.3 DEFINITION OF TERMS...................................................................................................3
1.4 MOTIVATION..................................................................................................................5
1.4.1 Broadband as Facilitator for Media-Rich E-learning...........................................................6
1.4.2 Growth of E-learning...........................................................................................................7
1.4.3 Benefits of Adaptivity.........................................................................................................8
1.4.4 Adaptive Learning Approaches...........................................................................................8
1.4.5 Dynamic Adaptation and Choice.......................................................................................10
1.5 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES...............................................................................................10
1.5.1 Contributions.....................................................................................................................12
1.5.2 Scope and Limitations.......................................................................................................12
1.6 EXEGESIS OUTLINE......................................................................................................13
2 BACKGROUND..................................................................................................15
2.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................15
2.2 INDIVIDUALISATION TENDENCIES IN LEARNING PARADIGMS.....................................16
2.2.1 A Definition of Learning...................................................................................................16
2.2.2 Behaviourist Influences.....................................................................................................17
2.2.3 Cognitivist Influences........................................................................................................19
2.2.4 Constructivist Influences...................................................................................................21
2.2.5 Summary............................................................................................................................23
2.3 MULTIMEDIA LEARNING..............................................................................................24
2.3.1 A Definition of Multimedia...............................................................................................24
2.3.2 Information Processing Theories.......................................................................................25
2.3.3 Multimedia as Multiple Representations...........................................................................28
2.3.4 Media Effect versus Multimedia Effect.............................................................................30
2.3.5 Summary............................................................................................................................32
2.4 E-LEARNING.................................................................................................................33
2.4.1 A Definition of E-learning.................................................................................................34
2.4.2 E-learning as a Tool for Individualisation.........................................................................34
2.4.3 Adaptive Capacity of Standard Platforms.........................................................................35
Table of Contents v

2.4.4 Effectiveness Studies.........................................................................................................36
2.4.5 Summary............................................................................................................................38
2.5 LEARNING STYLE THEORIES........................................................................................39
2.5.1 A Definition of Learning Style..........................................................................................40
2.5.2 Dilemmas and Problems of the Field.................................................................................42
2.5.3 Learning Style and the Brain.............................................................................................46
2.5.4 A Classification and Review of Major Models..................................................................48
2.5.5 Selection of a Model: Criteria, Criticism and Defence......................................................54
2.5.6 Matching Learners.............................................................................................................58
2.5.7 Mismatching Learners.......................................................................................................64
2.5.8 Summary............................................................................................................................65
2.6 ADAPTIVE EDUCATIONAL HYPERMEDIA.....................................................................67
2.6.1 Adaptive Educational Hypermedia and Intelligent Tutoring Systems...............................67
2.6.2 Locus of Control................................................................................................................70
2.6.3 Benefits of Choice.............................................................................................................72
2.6.4 Adaptive Components of an Environment.........................................................................73
2.6.5 Adaptive Learner Modelling..............................................................................................75
2.6.6 Learning-Style Adaptive Environments............................................................................78
2.6.7 Conclusions and Novel Aspects of iWeaver......................................................................89
2.6.8 Summary............................................................................................................................91
3 METHOD.............................................................................................................93
3.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................93
3.2 DIDACTIC AND INTERFACE DESIGN.............................................................................93
3.2.1 Learning Objectives and Course Content..........................................................................93
3.2.2 The Building Excellence Survey.......................................................................................95
3.2.3 Learner Progression through iWeaver...............................................................................97
3.2.4 Navigation and User Interface.........................................................................................100
3.2.5 Preference Accommodation.............................................................................................104
3.2.6 Media Experiences for Perceptual Preferences................................................................104
3.2.7 Learning Tools for Information Processing Preferences.................................................108
3.3 iWEAVER DESIGN AND PRODUCTION........................................................................111
3.3.1 System Architecture........................................................................................................111
3.3.2 Learner and Content Model.............................................................................................113
3.3.3 Adaptive Components.....................................................................................................114
3.3.4 Adaptation Process..........................................................................................................115
3.3.5 Production of Media Experiences....................................................................................117
3.3.6 Production of Learning Tools..........................................................................................119
3.3.7 Software, Hardware and Installation...............................................................................121
3.4 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN.............................................................................................122
3.4.1 Evaluating Adaptive Systems..........................................................................................122
3.4.2 Participant Profile............................................................................................................123
3.4.3 Data Collection Instruments............................................................................................124
3.4.4 Pilot Tests before the Evaluation.....................................................................................126
3.4.5 Repeated Measures Design..............................................................................................127
Table of Contents vi

3.4.6 Dependent Variables........................................................................................................128
3.5 EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION...................................................................................129
3.5.1 Participants......................................................................................................................130
3.5.2 Location and Equipment..................................................................................................130
3.5.3 Evaluation Sessions.........................................................................................................131
3.5.4 Data Screening.................................................................................................................132
3.5.5 Analysis Procedure..........................................................................................................134
3.5.6 Effect Size Calculation....................................................................................................134
3.5.7 Threats to Validity...........................................................................................................136
3.6 SUMMARY..................................................................................................................138
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION........................................................................140
4.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................140
4.2 REVISITED: RESEARCH QUESTIONS...........................................................................141
4.3 REVISITED: DEPENDENT VARIABLES.........................................................................141
4.4 DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA.......................................................................................141
4.4.1 Distribution of Perceptual Styles.....................................................................................142
4.4.2 Choices in Choice Lessons..............................................................................................143
4.4.3 Discussion........................................................................................................................146
4.5 INITIAL ANALYSIS......................................................................................................147
4.5.1 Finished Participants........................................................................................................149
4.5.2 Discussion........................................................................................................................149
4.6 EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS..........................................................................................150
4.6.1 Interest.............................................................................................................................151
4.6.2 Experience.......................................................................................................................154
4.6.3 Finished Participants........................................................................................................156
4.6.4 Discussion........................................................................................................................157
4.7 QUALITATIVE DATA...................................................................................................161
4.7.1 Choice Influence and Experience Level..........................................................................161
4.7.2 Comment Clusters...........................................................................................................162
4.8 SUMMARY..................................................................................................................165
5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...........................................168
5.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................168
5.2 SUMMARY OF CONTRIBUTIONS..................................................................................168
5.3 SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPLICATIONS............................................................................170
5.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH...............................................................................171
5.5 AREAS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH....................................................172
5.6 FINAL CONCLUSIONS.................................................................................................175
REFERENCES........................................................................................................176
Table of Contents vii

APPENDIX..............................................................................................................196
A. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON PROJECT MATERIALS.................................................196
A1. Learning Content Structure.................................................................................................196
A2. Approval Letters.................................................................................................................198
B. ADDITIONAL RESULTS TABLES....................................................................................200
B1. Tables for Initial Analysis (Finished Participants)..............................................................200
B2. Tables for Exploratory Analysis (Finished Participants).....................................................201
B3. Qualitative Data..................................................................................................................203
C. ETHICS DOCUMENTATION............................................................................................206
C1. Approval Letters..................................................................................................................206
C2. Plain Language Statement...................................................................................................209
C3. Data Collection Instruments................................................................................................210
C4. Interpretation of Learning Style Assessment (Excerpt).......................................................214
List of Tables viii

List of Tables

Table 2-1: Summary of Matching Studies for Perceptual Preferences............................................................61
Table 2-2: Summary of Matching Studies for Information Processing Preferences.......................................63
Table 3-1: Media Experiences for Perceptual Preferences............................................................................105
Table 3-2: Learning Tools for Information Processing Preferences..............................................................109
Table 3-3: Components of an Exemplary iWeaver Learning Sequence........................................................114
Table 3-4: Summary of Independent and Dependent Variables and their Possible Values...........................129
Table 3-5: Participant Statistics by Analysis Group for Gender, Age and Completed Lessons....................133
Table 4-1: Executed Choice Ratio per Participant.........................................................................................146
Table 4-2: Mean Comparisons between Choice/No Choice Conditions in Initial Analysis..........................148
Table 4-3: P-values and Effect Sizes for Choice Condition in Initial Analysis.............................................149
Table 4-4: Mean Comparisons between Choice/No Choice Conditions in Low/High Interest Groups........152
Table 4-5: P-values and Effect Sizes for Choice Condition in Low/High Interest Groups...........................153
Table 4-6: Mean Comparisons between Choice/No Choice Conditions in Low/High Experience Groups..154
Table 4-7: P-values and Effect Sizes for Choice Condition in Low/High Experience Groups.....................156
Table A-1: Learning Content: Lesson Titles.................................................................................................196
Table B-1: Mean Comparisons between Choice/No Choice Conditions in Initial Analysis
(Finished Participants).........................................................................................................................200
Table B-2: P-values and Effect Sizes for Choice Condition in Initial Analysis
(Finished Participants).........................................................................................................................200
Table B-3: Mean Comparisons Between Choice/No Choice Conditions in Low/High Interest Groups
(Finished Participants).........................................................................................................................201
Table B-4: P-values and Effect Sizes for Choice Condition in Low/High Interest Groups
(Finished Participants).........................................................................................................................201
Table B-5: Mean Comparisons between Choice/No Choice Conditions in Low/High Experience Groups
(Finished Participants).........................................................................................................................202
Table B-6: P-values and Effect Sizes for Choice Condition in Low/High Experience Groups
(Finished Participants).........................................................................................................................202
Table B-7: Qualitative Feedback from the Participants (Clustered and Contextualised)..............................203
List of Figures ix

List of Figures

Figure 2-1. Curry’s onion model of learning style theories.............................................................................48
Figure 2-2. The puzzle of learning of the BES with project-relevant dimensions highlighted........................51
Figure 2-3. Kolb’s dimensions of experiential learning..................................................................................53
Figure 2-4. Example for conditional text in AHA!..........................................................................................73
Figure 2-5. Example for link hiding in Microsoft Word 2003........................................................................74
Figure 2-6. Example for link sorting in Microsoft Word 2003........................................................................75
Figure 2-7. Example for link annotation and incremental linking...................................................................75
Figure 2-8. Schematic view of a combination model......................................................................................78
Figure 3-1. Sample question from the Building Excellence Survey................................................................96
Figure 3-2. Flowchart of iWeaver detailing the stepwise progression of the learner......................................98
Figure 3-3. Lesson sequence from pre-test to lesson feedback.......................................................................99
Figure 3-4. Screenshot of the main user interface of iWeaver......................................................................100
Figure 3-5. Screenshot of the tree menu navigation......................................................................................101
Figure 3-6. Screenshot of a tooltip to assist learners.....................................................................................103
Figure 3-7. Example of a visual text experience...........................................................................................106
Figure 3-8. Example of a visual pictures experience.....................................................................................106
Figure 3-9. Example of a tactile-kinaesthetic experience..............................................................................107
Figure 3-10. Example of an auditory experience...........................................................................................108
Figure 3-11. Screenshot of the learning tools selection bar...........................................................................108
Figure 3-12. Screenshots of the try-it tool: an online compiler.....................................................................110
Figure 3-13. System architecture of iWeaver................................................................................................112
Figure 3-14. Adapted recommendation of media experiences......................................................................115
Figure 3-15. Lesson feedback: Section for media experiences (choice condition)........................................125
Figure 3-16. Lesson feedback: Section for media experiences (no choice condition)...................................125
Figure 3-17. Lesson feedback: Section with additional questions.................................................................125
Figure 4-1. Distribution of perceptual styles for all participants compared to analysed participants............143
Figure 4-2. Breakdown of choices by “compared to control” and consistency.............................................144
Figure 4-3. Breakdown of choices in choice lessons by media experience on a page impression level........144
Figure 4-4. Interest score (Java interest + programming interest) score frequencies....................................151
Figure 4-5. Experience (computer experience + Internet experience) score frequencies..............................151
Figure 4-6. Interaction between learning gain and choice: Mean scores for low and high interest group.....153
Figure 4-7. Interaction between learning gain and choice: Mean scores for low and high experience group155
Figure 4-8. Interaction between motivation and choice: Mean scores for low and high experience group...155
Figure A-1. Full-tree view of iWeaver’s learning content.............................................................................197
Figure C-1. Sign-Up Form for iWeaver........................................................................................................210
Figure C-2. Building Excellence Survey: Sample Questions........................................................................211
Figure C-3. Post-Test Question: Example 1..................................................................................................211
Figure C-4. Post-Test Question: Example 2..................................................................................................212
Figure C-5. Post-Test Question: Example 3..................................................................................................212
Figure C-6. Complete Lesson Feedback Form (Choice Condition)..............................................................213