Concrete Petrography: A Handbook of Investigative Techniques, Second Edition PDF
Preview Concrete Petrography: A Handbook of Investigative Techniques, Second Edition
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY “The book is encyclopaedic in character but very lucid and readable and I can truly recommend it to those who seriously investigate concrete, and especially problems in concrete in service. I know no better book on concrete petrography.” —Adam Neville, from the Foreword What was said about the first edition “For the concrete technologist this is one of those rare ‘must-read’ books.” —Robert Wilson, The Structural Engineer “The value of petrography will be enhanced by this book.” CONCRETE CONCRETE —Bill French, Chemistry and Industry “... this comprehensive, authoritative and invaluable text ... I would like to strongly recommend it.” —Ahmad Shayan, Concrete Institute of Australia CONCRETE PETROGRAPHY “ Overall this is a good reference sourcebook, not only for petrographers but also for PETROGRAPHY those involved with concrete.” —The Indian Concrete Journal This classic reference has established the value of petrography as a powerful method for PETROGRAPHY the investigation of concrete as a material. It provides an authoritative and well-illustrated review of concrete composition and textures, including the causes of defects, deterioration and failure that can be identified using a petrological microscope. This new edition is entirely A HANDBOOK OF revised and updated and also greatly extended to take account of new scientific developments A handbook of and significant improvements in instrumentation and to reflect current laboratory working INVESTIGATIVE TECHNIQUES practices, as well as to reflect new understanding of the performance of concrete and investigative techniques related materials. A handbook of Now in full colour throughout, the book provides case study examples, with appropriate explanatory discussions and practical advice on selecting, handling and preparing specimens. investigative techniques It assists and guides the engineer, the trainee and the experienced petrographer in understanding the scientific evidence that is basic to petrographic analysis and so will lead to more accurate and timely diagnosis and treatment of problems in structural concrete. SECOND EDITION This book includes: SECOND EDITION • Contributions in specialist areas by internationally recognised experts SECOND EDITION • Explanation of computer techniques as an aid to petrography • Full coverage of inspection, sampling and specimen preparation • New sections covering recent technological development of equipment • Guidance on observation of cement and concrete mineralogy and microfabrics Alan B. Poole and Ian Sims • Discussion and illustrative examples of deterioration and failure mechanisms • New work and guidance on the determination of water/cement ratio • New colour illustrations and micrographs throughout SECOND AAlan BB.. PPoole and IIan SSims • Thorough updating of standards, other authoritative publications and references lAn oole And An ImS EDITION • A fully revised, extended and updated glossary of optical and other properties K16061 ISBN: 978-1-85617-690-3 90000 9 781856 176903 CONCRETE PETROGRAPHY A HAndbook of investigAtive tecHniques SECOND EDITION CONCRETE PETROGRAPHY A HANDBOOK OF INVESTIGATIVE TECHNIQUES SECOND EDITION A B. P I S lAn oole And An ImS CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20150527 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-8382-5 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. 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Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Foreword xv Preface xvii Acknowledgements xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Concrete petrography 1 1.2 Historical background 1 1.3 Overview of petrographic methods 3 1.4 Standard procedures 5 1.5 Objectives and coverage 5 References 6 2 Petrographic equipment and methods 9 2.1 Petrographic examination of concrete 9 2.2 Initial laboratory examination 9 2.3 Petrographic laboratory 12 2.3.1 Low-power stereomicroscope 13 2.3.2 Petrographic polarising microscope 14 2.3.2.1 Adjustment of the polarising microscope for transmitted light 14 2.3.2.2 Centring the objective lenses 15 2.3.2.3 Calibrating the eyepiece micrometre graticule 15 2.3.2.4 Reflected or incident-light illumination 15 2.3.3 Construction features of the polarising microscope 16 2.3.4 Photomicrographic equipment 19 2.4 Quantitative methods of component analysis 19 2.4.1 Standard modal analysis methods 20 2.5 Complementary and specialised techniques 24 2.5.1 Petrographic examination under ultraviolet illumination 24 2.5.2 Scanning electron microscopy and microanalysis 24 2.5.2.1 Components of a scanning electron microscope 26 2.5.2.2 Elemental x-ray microanalysis 30 2.5.2.3 Mineral and element recognition and mapping 31 v vi Contents 2.5.3 X-ray powder diffraction techniques 33 2.5.4 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy 34 2.5.4.1 Sample preparation 35 2.5.4.2 Spectral interpretation 37 2.5.5 Thermal methods of analysis 37 2.5.6 Chemical methods of analysis 38 2.5.6.1 Chemical analysis of unhydrated blended cements 38 2.5.6.2 Chemical analysis of hardened cement pastes in concrete 39 2.5.6.3 Identification of polymer additions in mortars and concrete 41 2.6 Computer-aided petrographic methods 42 2.6.1 Quantitative image analysis 42 2.6.1.1 Acquisition 43 2.6.1.2 Enhancement 45 2.6.1.3 Segmentation and thresholding 45 2.6.1.4 Measurement 46 2.6.2 Case study applications of image analysis 47 2.6.2.1 Estimation of pyrite content in mudstone aggregate 47 2.6.2.2 Modal analysis of a mortar specimen 47 2.6.2.3 Quantitative investigation of fractures 49 2.6.2.4 Evaluation of shape and distribution of voids 49 References 52 3 Sampling and specimen preparation 57 3.1 Sampling concrete and related materials 57 3.2 Inspection of structures 57 3.2.1 Surface expression of concrete deterioration 58 3.3 Representative sample 59 3.3.1 Particulate materials 59 3.3.2 Statistical considerations 61 3.3.3 Examination of particulate materials 64 3.3.4 Solid samples 65 3.3.5 Practical sampling methods for solids 69 3.3.6 Preparation of subsample specimens for investigation 70 3.4 Preparation of thin sections and finely ground or polished surfaces 75 3.4.1 Laboratory methods of cutting concrete 76 3.4.2 Laboratory preparation of ground surfaces 78 3.4.3 Laboratory preparation of polished surfaces 82 3.4.4 Resins for impregnation and mounting concrete specimens 82 3.4.5 Preparation of petrographic thin sections 86 3.5 Specimen preparation for special purposes 91 3.5.1 Small selected specimens 92 3.5.2 Powdered specimen 92 Contents vii 3.5.3 Preparations involving etches, stains and dyes 93 3.5.4 Dyes for use with resins 94 3.5.5 Stains for identification of minerals 95 3.5.6 Etching procedures for cement clinkers 96 References 99 4 Composition of concrete 103 4.1 Scope 103 4.2 Cement types and binder content 103 4.2.1 Anhydrous Portland cement phases and clinker 103 4.2.1.1 Calcium silicates (C S, C S) 106 3 2 4.2.1.2 Calcium aluminates and calcium aluminoferrites (C A, C AF) 108 3 4 4.2.1.3 Lime and periclase (CaO, MgO) 108 4.2.1.4 Other phases and gypsum 109 4.2.2 Identification of cement type in concrete 110 4.2.2.1 General principle of optical microscopical methods 111 4.2.2.2 Microscopical procedure 111 4.2.2.3 Interpretation of the findings and some difficulties 113 4.2.2.4 SEM and other methods 115 4.2.3 Hydrated cement phases 116 4.2.3.1 CSH and the microstructure of cement paste 118 4.2.3.2 Degree of hydration 120 4.2.3.3 Portlandite (Ca(OH) ) 121 2 4.2.3.4 Ettringite and some other complex phases 124 4.2.4 Blended and special cements 131 4.2.4.1 Portland–limestone cements 131 4.2.4.2 Ggbs and Portland blastfurnace cements 131 4.2.4.3 Pfa, fly ash and Portland pozzolanic cements 135 4.2.4.4 High-alumina cement 138 4.2.4.5 Supersulphated and other special cements 145 4.2.5 Building lime and cement/lime mixtures 146 4.2.5.1 Building lime 147 4.2.5.2 Cement/lime mixtures 153 4.2.6 Cement or binder contents in concrete 156 4.3 Aggregate types and characteristics 157 4.3.1 Petrographic identity of aggregate 157 4.3.1.1 Typical aggregate combinations 158 4.3.1.2 Crushed rock coarse aggregates 158 4.3.1.3 Natural gravel coarse aggregates 161 4.3.1.4 Crushed rock and natural sand fine aggregates 161 4.3.1.5 Recycled aggregates 162 4.3.2 Particle size and aggregate size grading 163 4.3.3 Particle shape 171 viii Contents 4.3.4 Particle shape recognition 173 4.3.4.1 Form and sphericity 173 4.3.4.2 Roundness and angularity 174 4.3.4.3 Irregularity 175 4.3.4.4 Use of desktop flat-bed scanners 176 4.3.5 Other particle characteristics 182 4.4 Water/cement ratio 186 4.4.1 Definitions and relationship to concrete properties 186 4.4.2 Indicators of water/cement ratio 188 4.4.2.1 Water voids and bleeding 189 4.4.2.2 Capillary porosity 189 4.4.2.3 Mineralogical features 192 4.4.3 Determination of water/cement ratio by the physico-chemical method 193 4.4.4 Determination of water/cement ratio by fluorescence microscopy 195 4.4.4.1 Principle of the method 195 4.4.4.2 Transmitted and reflected light procedures for determination of equivalent water/cement ratio using thin sections 196 4.4.4.3 Reflected light procedure for the determination of equivalent water/cement ratio using ground polished specimens 204 4.4.5 Determination of water/cement ratio using scanning electron microscopy 207 4.5 Air-void content and air entrainment 209 4.5.1 Types of voids in concrete 209 4.5.1.1 Entrapped air voids 210 4.5.1.2 Entrained air voids 211 4.5.2 Quantification of air-void content in hardened concrete 216 4.5.2.1 Visual assessment of excess voidage 216 4.5.2.2 Other methods for assessing air-void content 219 4.5.2.3 Use of desktop flat-bed scanners 220 4.5.3 Microscopical measurement of the air-void system 224 4.5.4 Aerated and foamed concrete 231 4.6 Mineral additions and pigments 233 4.6.1 Fly ash and pulverised-fuel ash 233 4.6.1.1 Identifying fly ash or pfa 234 4.6.1.2 Quantifying the content of fly ash or pfa 235 4.6.2 Blastfurnace slag materials 238 4.6.2.1 Identifying ggbs 240 4.6.2.2 Quantifying the content of ggbs 243 4.6.3 Ultra-fine additions 244 4.6.3.1 Microsilica (condensed silica fume) 245 4.6.3.2 Metakaolin 249
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