Computer Graphics — Computer Art

187 Pages·1985·17.791 MB·English

by  Prof. Dr. Herbert W. Franke (auth.)

Herbert W. Franke
Computer Graphics -
Computer Art
Second, Revised and Enlarged Edition
With 133 Figures, Some in Color
Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg New York Tokyo
Prof. Dr. Herbert W. Franke
Title of the Original German Edition:
D-8195 Puppling 40, F. R. Germany
H. W. Franke, Computergraphik - Computerkunst
©1971 byVedag F.Bruckmann KG, Munchen
Title of the English Edition:
H. W. Franke, Computer Graphics - Computer Art
©1971 by Phaidon Press Limited, London
Translated by Gustav Metzger and Antje Schrack
ISBN-13 :978-3-642-70261-7 e-ISBN -13 :978-3-642-70259-4
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-70259-4
Cover graphic:
Mathematical Landscape, perspective presentation of a mathematical
library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
function of two variables; system DIBIAS, DFVLR, Oberpfaffenho
Franke, Herbert W., 1927-. Computer graphics, computer art. Translation of:
fen, Herbert W. Franke and Horst Helbig
Computergraphik, Computerkunst. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Com
puter graphics. 2. Computer art. I.1itle. T385.F6913 1985 702'.8'5443
85-4790
Frontispiece :
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole
1 Digital graphic from the series DRAKULA (DRAchenKUrven
or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprin
uberLAgert), 1971, by Herbert W.Franke, programmed by Josef
ting, re-use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying
Vordermaier, executed with the Siemens System 4004 and a CalComp
machine or similar means, and storage in data banks. Under § 54 of the Ger
man Copyright Law where copies are made for other than private use a fee is drum plotter. This drawing is based on a seventh order dragon curve
payable to 'Verwertungsgesellschaft Wort', Munich. built upfrom 127instructionsfor left and right twists. The elements are
taken from a repertoire ofc urve sections chosen for their superposition
©Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1985
ing and connection characteristics. By the choice ofd ifferent elements,
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 1985
curve sections, and the manner ofc ombination and superimposition, a
multiplicity off iguration is achieved
The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in the publication does not
imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free
for general use.
Preface to the Second Edition
Ten years have passed since the first edition of this book, a time sary to stress that the availability of colors further assists artistic
span during which all activities connected with computers have ambitions.
experienced an enormous upswing, due in particular to the ad The dynamics of display which can be achieved on the screen is
vances in the field of semiconductor electronics which facilitated also of significance for the visual arts. It is a necessary condition
microminiaturization. With the circuit elements becoming small for some technical applications, for example when simulating
er and smaller, i. e. the transition to integrated circuits, the price dynamic processes. Although the graphics systems operating in
of hardware was reduced to an amazingly low level: this has de real time were not designed for artistic purposes, they nonethe
finitely been an impulse of great importance to the expansion of less open the most exciting aspects to the visual arts. While the
computer technology, as well as to areas far removed from tech static computer picture was still a realization in line with the
nology. usual form of representation in the fine arts, computer graphics
The increased execution times and storage capacities achieved now becomes the instrument for a form of artistically created
by semiconductors were necessary conditions for the break graphical sequences, precursors of which, however imperfect,
through of computer graphics which has occurred in the mean were the kaleidoscope, water fountains illuminated by color, and,
time. While a decade ago it was still considered to be a special subsequently, animated pictures. Just as it is possible to produce
application for computers, today computer graphics can be re sound elements with a musical instrument in any combination
garded as being completely integrated into computer science. and sequence, computer graphics systems allow free graphical
The output of computational results in graphical form occurs just play with colors and shapes. In contrast to animated pictures,
as often as the numeric representation, but in addition a multi production in real time is possible, and thus even free improvisa
tude of further, partly surprising applications has developed. Pic tion - surely the most stimulating form of artistic activity.
ture processing has become a widely used method for evaluating The free and flexible way to use a computer differs widely from
the results of scientific photography, in close collaboration with its operation in former years - the off-line mode using punched
pattern recognition, a structural analysis effected with the aid of cards and resulting in long waiting periods for the mechanically
numerical methods. CAD (computer-aided design)/CAM (com produced graphics.
puter-aided manufacturing) are important areas of current re Other developments point in the same direction: excellent adap
search. tation of the machine to man, and not vice versa, leads to an in
Computer-aided process control has surfaced as a new area, the creasing use of interactive systems. The classical computer lan
central supervision of technical systems with the aid of screens. guages then serve, for the most part, only the purpose of
Furthermore, various text processing systems are worth mention preparing for a user-oriented mode of operation, particularly for
ing, the characters of which are generated with computer graphi users without any knowledge of computer science. The program
cal methods, but which also permit supplementation by simple logic is oriented towards a question-answer-dialogue, menus and
graphic representations. decisions which lead to further questions and answers until the
The transition from mechanical plotters to graphics terminals is a desired result is obtained.
development characteristic of the last few years. They open the The method thus applied is that of trial and error, a mode of op
way to regional representation, to the unlimited use of color, to eration well adjusted to the processes of human thinking and act
dynamic display, and to interactive use. While in former times ing. Routine questions are solved internally, without the user no
the use of color was attributed more to a playful need for orna ticing it, and omissions or mistakes are indicated on the printer or
mentation, it is generally accepted today that much better over graphics terminal. In this way - supplemented by suitable hard
views can be achieved by representing particularly complex con ware - one comes very close to customary artistic activity, for in
figurations in color. In some cases, as for instance in process stance painting and drawing, so that the artist can work in a fash
control, one could hardly do without colors. It is scarcely neces- ion appropriate for enjoying, in addition, considerable advan-
v
tages, for instance the possibility to change colors, to enlarge eventually, will most certainly use more sophisticated simulation
segments of pictures, to move elements across the display sur techniques - another area of application which will be of com
face, etc. mercial interest and which holds great promise for the future.
It must be stated, however, that the interest of professional artists Besides its use in the movie industry, the advertising industry and
in the new tools is relatively low; visual art is heading into other the area of computer games, a further interesting possibility for
directions and, similar to photography in the past, the new medi using these techniques has developed, and that is simulation for
um will probably not be integrated into the conventional art educational purposes, for example for the training of pilots and
scene, but might serve as a challenge for the creation of a new railway engineers.
profession. This trend was aided by the development of some The special task of computer graphics in the field of instruction is
new applications of computer graphics during the last few years the visualization of instructional material, as is possible particu
which were commercially oriented and were therefore able to at larly in mathematics, physics, and chemistry, but which will grad
tract the interests of computer scientists more than the free artis ually extend to other subject areas. The new method permits the
tic activities, but which, on the other hand, are closely connected use of pictures as an alternative to formulas - thus making many
with the latter and which can profit from its experiences. Four relationships visually conceivable, with all the advantages of pro
areas are to be distinguished: viding a better overview and of making the material easier to re
tain. In contrast to the usual illustrations, dynamic processes can
1. Design - from architecture to patterns for textiles.
also be demonstrated by computer graphics methods, not only in
2. Animation - from movies and advertising to computer games.
a linear sequence, but also with varying parameters which offer
3. Visualization for instructional purposes.
the student the possibility of experimenting. Another conse
4. Experimental aesthetics.
quence of these possibilities is the "electronic museum" in which
The work procedures of designers of industrial products - car all kinds of processes can be demonstrated by computer simula
bodies are a well-known example - as well as those of architects tion.
and of civil engineers resemble the technical processes of CAD The fourth kind of application, experimental aesthetics, is related
and CAM with the aesthetic aspect being added as an additional to computer art in two ways. On the one hand, computer gra
factor. Basically, the same technically proven methods are being phics has proven to be the medium which provides the science of
used by the designers. The situation looks a little different in the the fine arts, aesthetics, with the vehicle for experimenting - by
area of textile design. Technical constraints - as, for example, making it possible to construct and vary pictures according to
that of repeat and duplicate - play merely a subordinate role, certain aesthetic laws and by succeeding in simulating stylistic
aesthetical criteria demand to be considered first and foremost. peculiarities of certain epochs and artists. On the other hand, it
Special systems which are also compatible with the automated becomes more and more apparent that the aesthetically oriented
production in weaving and knitting mills are offered by some modes of expression, as they are used in conventional textbooks
companies for these purposes. Besides, textile design is a task and academies, are of little avail to the artist who works with
which can also be solved with conventional systems, based on technical systems, particularly with computers. He needs a ratio
software which is not too complicated. nal theory as theoretical basis which uses principles that can be
The area of animation has become known particularly because formulated mathematically and which provides a link to science
of new methods in producing animated pictures; its use spans and technology by referring to the reality of the human processes
the whole range from generating phase pictures to simulated of perception. Thus, computer graphics proves to be the instru
technical objects and landscapes. But one can also consider the ment which, at the same time, contributes to its own theoretical
area of computer games under the aspect of animation which, in underpinning.
this case, is still achieved by rather simple means, but which, It becomes evident from the situation briefly outlined above that
VI
the number of those interested in the possibilities of computer But undoubtedly we are dealing with a part of that "gentle" tech
graphics has increased considerably over the last few years. Be nology demanded by so many which enriches man's life on a
sides computer scientists themselves, who suddenly find them cognitive and creative level without causing any harm.
selves confronted with tasks which are at least partially aestheti I would like to thank Dr. Imai-A. Roehreke and Digital Equip
cally oriented, there are the members of other professions - ment, Munich, for assisting me in the design of computer gra
artists, designers, educators, etc. - who want to inform them phics and for providing the possibility of using a Professional
selves of the subject matter. Since this book is not only meant for 350. I would further like to thank Mr. Horst Helbig, DFYLR,
computer scientists, the outline of the new edition will remain Oberpfaffenhofen, Prof. Dr. Georg Nees, Siemens, Erlangen,
unchanged: After a simple description of the means and meth and Johann Weiss, Technical University, Vienna, for revising the
ods, a historical summary and a discussion of the artistic POl! manuscript, and also Prof. Dr. Otto E. Laske, Newcombe, Need
sibilities facilitated by the computer will follow. These chapters ham (Massachusetts), for his support in compiling the section on
of the book have been thoroughly revised and updated. A section computer music. Further more I am indebted to Prof. Dr.
which deals with the above-mentioned new applications of com Gunther F. Schrack, Vancouver, for his valuable advice, and in
puter graphics means and experiences in the commercial field particular to his wife Antje, for translating the new parts of this
has been added. book into English. The first edition was translated by Gustav
In spite of the considerable progress which computer graphics Metzger. Last but not less heartily I would like to thank Dr.
has experienced within the last ten years, it should not by any Friedbert Stohner for his careful work on the German and
means be considered as having reached the stage of full maturity English editions and for his pleasent co-operation during the
- thus, the last part which is devoted to future prospects remains preparation of this book.
indispensable. The short time span during which computer gra I am also obliged to all friends, colleagues and companies who
phics has been researched and applied has certainly not been made their graphics available for illustrating this book.
sufficient to let it mature into a great, well-recognized art form.
HWF
VII
Preface to the First Edition
The works from computers nowadays covered by the term com the phenomenal increase in activities, but also because it is only
puter art are in my opinion among the most remarkable products now being realized that computer art was practiced in many
of our time: places well before it attracted international attention. Nonethe
less, an attempt will be made to present a survey of initiatives and
- not because they surpass, or even approach, the beauty of tra
methods - but on no account can this be complete.
ditional forms of art, but because they place established ideas
The demarcations of the subject present yet a further difficulty.
of beauty and art in question;
Many of the works to be discussed have their origin in scientific
- not because they are intrinsically satisfactory or even finished,
and technical tasks; in the USA any kind of pictorial output of
but because their very unfinished form indicates the great
computer results is designated as computer graphics. Some of
potential for future development;
these results have a considerable aesthetic interest, and others re
- not because they resolve problems, but because they raise and
quire only a slight modification to remove them from the realm
expose them.
of science and technology and place them for consideration in
Mass-produced electronic digital computers have existed for the sphere of art. Works by W. A. Fetter, which are among the
around twenty years, and the term computer art has been in cur first computer drawings and which emerged from a strictly tech
rent use for about five years. Compared with the latest stylish nical problem - the most efficient design of an aeroplane cockpit
movements - such as Op and Pop - that is a long time, but in re - have received art awards; computer graphics made for scientif
lation to technical developments it is a very short one. Computer ic and technical purposes cannot therefore be entirely excluded
art, however, is dependent on the computers - it cannot achieve from the field of computer art.
more than these will permit: it expresses the progress taking A further question relates to the instruments. Although the first
place in computer science. If one accepts the predictions of the aesthetic graphics produced with the aid of large data processing
experts, then the most interesting developments are yet to come, installations came as a surprise to many, they did in fact have
especially in the field of programming, i. e. software. As long as precursors. In particular, the analogue computer had already
this growth continues computer art too has the potential to per been employed for free artistic expression. And even before this,
fect its methods and thrust toward new domains. The goals to attempts had been made to create graphic images by means of
ward which it is advancing are still obscure, yet the almost pal optical and mechanical implements; these images too could be
pable indications of that future appear fantastic. Computer art seen as aspects of analogue calculation. In accordance with the
can place the whole field of aesthetics as well as artistic practice usage of the first large computer art exhibition - Cybernetic Ser
onto new foundations - an idea that will be substantiated later in endipity, London 1968, organized by Jasia Reichardt on a sugges
this book. tion by Max Bense - a work of computer art will be understood
Ever since the emergence of computer art, all kinds of arguments here as being any aesthetic formation which has arisen on the ba
have been used to deny a connection between computer and art; sis of the logical or numerical transposition of given data with the
this too will be discussed. In this book the terms computer art aid of electronic mechanisms.
and computer artist will be used in a descriptive sense; recogni Computer art already embraces many forms of traditional art -
tion as an art form remains a matter for individual judgment. there are computer-generated graphics, sculptures, films, choreo
When I first decided to present a comprehensive survey of the graphy, poems, music. All these developments stand in close
new phenomenon of computer art, I felt that, for once, it would relationship; only music has followed its own development,
be possible to trace the development of an art form from its earl based on the intentions of electronic music. Since a bulky litera
iest beginnings, and that it would be easy to incorporate a com ture is already in existence, computer music will be considered in
plete documentation of its classical phase, in its historical con this book only in so far as it is related to other activities in com
text. This advantage has now disappeared, not only because of puter art.
IX
Access to computer art is hindered by a difficulty unknown in illustrated survey of the manifold possibilities of computer
other art forms: its practice requires a certain elementary mathe generated pictorial imagery. Following the addition of many new
matical and technical knowledge. A similar difficulty arises for a works, the pictorial part of the book became far larger than had
comprehensive presentation such as is attempted here: in order been originally planned; thanks are due to the publishers for the
to acquire a true understanding, a brief consideration of the func wide scope of the illustrations. I am especially indebted to Dr.
tions and working methods of computer installations is unavoid Frieder Nake, presently in Vancouver\ and to Mr. Peter Henne,
able. Since this leads to a deeper insight into the historical devel Bad Godesberg2, who have taken the trouble to read the manu
opment of computer art as well as its underlying theory, this pre script, and who have made valuable suggestions regarding cor
paratory section takes up the first part of the book. It also ap rections and supplementation of the text. I am also obliged to the
peared desirable to demonstrate certain methods by examples, firm of Siemens AG, Munich, for enabling me to carry out com
which also had to be referred to in the historical part. The result puter graphic experiments with their data processing installation,
is a certain overlapping, but this does have the advantage of fur the Siemens System 4004: I thank all collaborators from their
ther clarifying the interconnections between the technical and Bereich Datenverarbeitung for their friendly support of my work.
the creative aspects. Finally, I am grateful to all those who have supplied pictures,
As the most convincing evidence for the state of computer gra and who have helped with information - especially the members
phics is the exemplary image, an effort was made to present an of the Computer Arts Society, London.
HWF
1 Now (1984) Professor at the University of Bremen
2 Now (1984) GMD, Birlinghoven
x
Contents
Installations and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9 Further Artistic Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Dynamic Pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1 The Computer and Aesthetic Processes. . . . . . . . . . 1 Cinematography . . . . . . 59
Animation .... . ............ . 59
2 The Analogue Computer 1
Video. . . . . . . . ................ . 60
3 The Digital Computer . . 1 Sculpture .... . 62
Dance ...... . 64
4 Structure of the Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Music ..... . 64
Microcomputers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Multi-Media ....................... . 68
5 Hardware ................ . 3
The Computer and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Memory ................. . 3
Input Devices .............. . . . . . 4
Output Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Graphic Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 History ofC omputer Art . . . . . . ... 93
Mechanical Output Devices . . . . . . . . . . 7
Electronic Output Devices . . . . . . . . . . 11
1 The Move to Computer Graphics . . . 93
Printing Devices . . . . . .. .... . . . . . . 20
Technological Progress . . . . . . . . . 93
Calculation Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6 Software ......................... . 22
Alienated Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Organization of Digital Computer Processes. .... . 22
Programming Languages ...... . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2 The Beginning of Computer Graphics. . . . . . . . . . 95
Graphical Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Computer Graphics in Interactive Operation ..... . 25 3 International Exhibitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Graphics Systems .................... . 27
Mathematical Operations/Random Processes . . . . . . 28 4 Publications on Computer Art . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 107
7 Computer Graphics in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 5 The Expansive Period ................. . 110
Graphic Data Processing ................ . 44
6 Recent Activities . . 118
Word Processing Systems . . . 45
Business Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7 Computer Sculpture 127
CAD/CAM ....................... . 45
Process Supervision . . . . . . 49 8 Computer Film . . . 129
Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Animation .......... . 50 9 Computer Texts . . . 133
Picture Processing ...... . 50
Pattern Recognition . . . . . . . . . . 53 10 Computer Music .. 138
8 Representational Pictures in Computer Graphics . . .. 53 11 Theater, Dance, Multi-Media . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 140
Picture Processing in Computer Art. . . . . . . . . . 55
New Tasks of Picture Processing . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56 12 Computer Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 141
XI