Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications

238 Pages·1993·4.73 MB·English

by  Denis Mcquail

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COMMUNICATION MODELS
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COMMUNICATION MODELS
7 for the study of mass communications
1
0 second edition
2
y
r
a
u
r
b DENIS McQUAIL
e
F and
9 SVEN WINDAHL
1
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LONDON AND NEW YORK
7
1 First published 1982 by Pearson Education Limited
0
2 Second edition 1993
y
r
a Published 2013 by Routledge
u
r 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
b 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA
e
F
9 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an inform a business
1
7
2 © Sven Windahl & Denis Mc0uail1982, 1993
:
2
2
t All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or
a by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
o] photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
g in writing from the publishers.
e
i
D
Notices
n Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
Sa broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
a, treatment may become necessary.
i
n Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
r
o evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In
f
i using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
l
a others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
C
of To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
y assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
t liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
i
rs instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
e
v
i ISBN 13: 978-0-582-03650-5 (pbk)
n
U
y [ British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
b A catalogue record for this book is available from the
d British Library.
e
d Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
a McOuail, Denis,
o
l Communication models for the study of mass com
n munications I Denis McOuail, Sven Windahl. -2nd
w
ed.
o p. em.
D
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-582-03650-X
1. Communication models. I. Windhal, Sven,
1942-. II. Title. P91.M375 1993
302.23'0228-dc20 92-28665 CIP
Set by 13 in 10/12pt Univers
CONTENTS
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1
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2
y
r 1 INTRODUCTION
a
u
r
b
Fe 1.1 Scope and purpose 1
9 1.2 The uses and misuses of models 2
1
7 1.3 Definitions and terms 4
2 1.4 Early communication models and mass
:
2 communication research 6
2
t 1.5 Elaboration of the basic mathematical model 7
a
] 1.6 From communication to mass communication 8
go 1.7 Developments in communication models and
ie communication research 9
D
1.8 Future developments 11
n
a
S
a,
i
n
r 2 BASIC MODELS
o
f
i
l
a
C 2.1 The Lasswell Formula 13
of 2.2 Shannon and Weaver's, Osgood and Schramm's,
y and Dance's models 16
t
si 2.3 Gerbner's general model of communication 23
r
e 2.4 Newcomb's ABX model, other 'balance' models
v
ni and co-orientation 27
U 2.4.1 The Newcomb ABX model 27
[
y 2.4.2 Kite co-orientation model 30
b 2.4.3 Theory of consonance and dissonance 33
d
e 2.4.4 A convergence model 35
ad 2.5 Westley and Maclean's conceptual model for
lo communication research 38
n
w 2.6 Maletzke's model of the mass communication
o process 46
D
2.7 Alternatives to transmission: ritual and
attention models 54
2.7.1 A ritual model of communication 54
2.7.2 Communication as display and attention 56
vi Contents
3 PERSONAL INFLUENCE, DIFFUSION AND
SHORT-TERM EFFECTS OF MASS
7 COMMUNICATION ON INDIVIDUALS
1
0
2 3.1 Stimulus-response models and their modifications 58
y 3.2 Katz and Lazarsfeld's two-step flow model of mass
r
a media and personal influence 62
u
br 3.3 Comstock's psychological model of television effects
e on individual behaviour 67
F
9 3.4 Rogers and Shoemaker's model of innovation
1
7 diffusion 73
2 3.5 News diffusion 78
:
2 3.5.1 The 'normal' diffusion curve 78
2
t 3.5.2 The J-curve model 79
a
] 3.6 News comprehension, processing and recall 85
o 3.6.1 A transmission model of news learning 86
g
e 3.6.2 Processing the news-a reception model 89
i
D
3.7 The mycelium model of public opinion and
n
a interpersonal communication 95
S
a,
ni 4 EFFECTS OF MASS COMMUNICATION ON
r
o CULTURE AND SOCIETY
f
i
l
Ca 4.1 Cultural indicators and the cultivation process 100
f 4.2 Agenda-setting 104
o
y 4.2.1 The basic model 105
t 4.2.2 Rogers and Dearing's model of differential
i
s
r agenda setting 107
e
v 4.3 A dependency model of mass communication
i
n effects 111
U
[ 4.3.1 The dependency state 111
y 4.3.2 The dependency effect process 113
b
d 4.4 The spiral of silence 116
e
d 4.4.1 The basic model 117
a
o 4.4.2 Process model for individual opinion 118
l
n 4.5 Information gaps as effects 122
w
4.6 Centrifugal versus centripetal effects of media in
o
D society 129
5 AUDIENCE-CENTRED MODELS
5.1 The uses and gratifications approach 133
Contents vii
5.1.1 The basic formula 133
5.1.2 Rosengren's general model 134
7 5.1.3 The expectancy-value approach to media
01 gratifications 136
2 5.1.4 Cultural versus informational gratification
ry models 138
ua 5.2 Renckstorf's social action model 143
br 5.3 Audience reception and decoding 145
e
F 5.3.1 A model of encoding and decoding 146
9 5.3.2 A discourse model 148
1
7 5.4 Audience reach, choice and appreciation 151
2 5.4.1 A model of differential audience reach 151
:
22 5.4.2 Television programme choice 153
t 5.4.3 Audience choice under conditions of channel
a
] abundance 156
o
g 5.4.4 Television programme appreciation 157
e
i
D
n 6 MEDIA ORGANIZATION, SELECTION AND
a
S PRODUCTION
a,
ni 6.1 The media in a field of social forces 160
or 6.2 Gieber and Johnson's model of source-reporter
lif relationships 162
Ca 6.3 Media gatekeeping 166
f 6.4 McNelly's model of news flow 169
o
y 6.5 Bass's 'Double Action' model of internal news
it flow 171
s
er 6.6 Galtung and Ruge's model of selective
iv gatekeeping 173
n
U 6.7 Selection and production sequence in two
y [ different media 177
b 6.7.1 Newsmaking 177
d 6.7.2 The news production process 178
e
d 6.7.3 The decision chain in the music industry 180
a
o
l
n
w 7 PLANNED COMMUNICATION
o
D
7.1 The communication campaign 184
7.2 Dimensions of campaign objectives and effects 188
7.3 Communication effects hierarchy 190
7.4 Four models of public relations 193
7.5 Marketing communication 197
viii Contents
8 NEW MEDIA AND THE INFORMATION SOCIETY
7 8.1 The information society: promise and problems 201
1 8.2 Changing balance of information traffic 205
20 8.3 Convergence of communication modes and
y models of media regulation 210
r
a 8.4 Communication policy and social problems:
u
r cross-system differences 213
b
e
F
9
1 9 INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION
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2 9.1 Introduction 215
:
22 9.2 International flow of information 217
at 9.3 International news flow 219
] 9.4 Transnational television flows 223
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1 INTRODUCTION
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y 1.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
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a
u
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e
F This book has a dual objective. On the one hand, it seeks to bring
9
1 together and to present, in a succinct and accessible form, many
7 of the models which have been developed to describe or explain
2
2: the process of mass communication. On the other hand, itaimsto
t 2 represent the main lines of thought about mass communication
] a which have emerged during 40 years of research. At certain
o points we have drawn our own models to reflect important con
g
ie ceptual developments or relatively new fields of enquiry. In this
D
n much revised edition, over ten years on, we have omitted some
a earlier models and added new ones, both in order to take account
S
a, of developments in the field and to extend the range (especially in
ni Chs 7 to 9). Some of the early basic models are certainly dated,
or but we have kept them for historical reasons and because they
f
li provided the foundations for later work.
a
C There is more than one way oftelling the history of ideas about

of mass communication and the one we have chosen follows a
y tradition in which mass communication can be seen as a specific
t
si form of a general phenomenon, in which the main elements of
r
ve sender, message and receiver take on distinctive characteristics
i
n and meanings. We hope to shed light on these meanings by
U
[ starting with some very simplified and general versions of what
y any communication relationship involves and then proceeding to
b
d deal with the effects of mass communication and with the rela
e
d tionships which hold amongst the main participants and be
a
o tween the participants and their society.
l
wn In focusing on mass communication, we have inevitably to
o neglect interesting developments in the study of inter-and intra
D
personal communication and of communication structures and
flows within groups and organizations. Nevertheless, our own
view of mass communication is of a process which is co-exten
sive and interactive with other types of communication network
and process. While different specialisms have emerged in the