Classroom Instruction That Works: Research-Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement

187 Pages·2001·1.38 MB·English

by  Robert J. Marzano

RRoobbeerrtt JJ.. MMaarrzzaannoo
DDeebbrraa JJ.. PPiicckkeerriinngg
JJaannee EE.. PPoolllloocckk
R -
ESEARCH
B S
ASED TRATEGIES
I S A
FOR NCREASING TUDENT CHIEVEMENT
RRoobbeerrtt JJ.. MMaarrzzaannoo
DDeebbrraa JJ.. PPiicckkeerriinngg
JJaannee EE.. PPoolllloocckk
R -
E S E A R C H
B S
A S E D T R AT E G I E S
I S A
F O R N C R E A S I N G T U D E N T C H I E V E M E N T
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development • Alexandria, Virginia USA
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
(for paperback book)
Marzano,Robert J.
Classroom instruction that works:research-based strategies for increasing student
achievement/Robert J.Marzano,Debra J.Pickering,Jane E.Pollock.
p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 0-87120-504-1
1. Effective teaching—United States. 2. Academic achievement—United States—
Statistics. I.Pickering,Debra. II. Pollock,Jane E.,1956– III. Title
LB1025.3 .M339 2001
371.102—dc21 00-012007
CC
LLAASSSSRROOOOMM
II
NNSSTTRRUUCCTTIIOONN
tthhaatt wwoorrkkss
R -B S I S A
ESEARCH ASED TRATEGIES FOR NCREASING TUDENT CHIEVEMENT
List of Figures _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ iv
1 Applying the Research on Instruction:
An Idea Whose Time Has Come_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1
Research-Based Strategies
2 Identifying Similarities and Differences_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 13
3 Summarizing and Note Taking _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 29
4 Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 49
5 Homework and Practice_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 60
6 Nonlinguistic Representations _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 72
7 Cooperative Learning _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 84
8 Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 92
9 Generating and Testing Hypotheses_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 103
10 Cues,Questions,and Advance Organizers _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 111
Specific Applications
11 Teaching Specific Types of Knowledge _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 123
12 Using the Nine Categories in Instructional Planning _ _ _ 146
13 Afterword _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 156
Appendix:Conversion Table for Effect Size/Percentile Gain_ _ _ _ _ _ 159
References _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 161
Index _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 174
About the Authors_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 177
L F
I S T O F I G U R E S
1.1. The Normal Distribution _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 5
1.2. Average Effect Size Using Higher-Level Questions _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 6
1.3. Categories of Instructional Strategies That Affect Student Achievement _ _ _ _ _ _ 7
1.4. Three Elements of Effective Pedagogy _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 10
2.1. Selected Research Results for Identifying Similarities and Differences _ _ _ _ _ _ 15
2.2. Definitions_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 17
2.3. Venn Diagram _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 18
2.4. Comparison Matrix _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 19
2.5. Venn Diagram:Pioneer Days and Today _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 21
2.6. Graphic Organizers for Classification_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 22
2.7. Graphic Organizer for Metaphors_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 25
2.8. Graphic Organizer for Analogies _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 28
2.9. Graphic Organizer for Analogies in Use _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 28
3.1. Research Results for Summarizing Strategies_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 30
3.2. Exercise in Summarizing _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 31
A. The Photographic Process_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 31
B. Macrostructure of the Photographic Process _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 31
3.3. Summarizing Strategy:Sample Passage _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 33
3.4. The Narrative Frame_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 35
3.5. The Topic-Restriction-Illustration Frame _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 37
3.6. The Definition Frame _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 38
3.7. The Argumentation Frame _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 39
3.8. The Problem/Solution Frame _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 40
LIST OF FIGURES v
3.9. The Conversation Frame _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 41
3.10. Reciprocal Teaching _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 43
3.11. Research Results for Note Taking _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 44
3.12. Teacher-Prepared Notes:The Bill of Rights_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 45
3.13. Student Notes:Informal Outline—The Circulatory System _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 46
3.14. Student Notes:Webbing—Olympic Games _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 47
3.15. Student Notes:Combination Technique—Inflation _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 48
4.1. Research Results for Reinforcing Effort_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 51
4.2. Effort and Achievement Rubrics _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 52
A. Effort Rubric_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 52
B. Achievement Rubric_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 52
4.3. Effort and Achievement Chart _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 53
4.4. Research Results for Providing Recognition _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 54
4.5. Guidelines for Effective Praise _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 56
4.6. Meta-analytic Results Supporting Rewards _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 57
4.7. Influence of Abstract Versus Tangible Rewards_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 58
5.1. Research Results for Homework _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 61
5.2. Recommended Total Minutes Per Day for Homework_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 62
5.3. Research Results for Graded Homework _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 64
5.4. Research Results for Practice _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 66
5.5. Learning Line _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 67
5.6. Increase in Learning Between Practice Sessions_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 68
6.1. Research Results for Nonlinguistic Representation_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 74
6.2. Descriptive Pattern Organizer_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 75
6.3. Time Sequence Pattern Organizer _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 76
6.4. Process/Cause-Effect Pattern Organizer_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 76
6.5. Episode Pattern Organizer_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 77
6.6. Generalization/Principle Pattern Organizer_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 77
6.7. Concept Pattern Organizer _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 78
6.8. Time Sequence Pattern in Arbitration_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 79
6.9. Process/Cause-Effect Pattern for Negotiation_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 79
6.10. Concept Pattern for Voluntary Mediation_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 80
6.11. Student Pictograph _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 83
7.1. Research Results for Cooperative Learning_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 86
7.2. Homogeneous Grouping Versus No Grouping _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 87
7.3. Homogeneous versus Heterogeneous Grouping _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 88
7.4. Size of Groups_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 88
vi
CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION THAT WORKS
8.1. Research Results for Goal Setting_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 93
8.2. Research Results for Providing Feedback _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 97
8.3. Research Results for Corrective Feedback _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 98
8.4. Timing of Feedback _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 98
8.5. Rubrics for Providing Feedback _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 100
A. General Rubric for Information _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 100
B. Generic Rubric for Processes and Skills _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 100
8.6. Rubric Adaptations_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 101
A. Industrial Revolution Rubric—Information _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 101
B. Reading Bar Graph Rubric—Processes and Skills _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 101
9.1. Research Results for Generating and Testing Hypotheses_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 104
9.2. Inductive versus Deductive Approaches _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 106
10.1. Research Results for Cues and Questions _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 112
10.2. Definition of Analytic Skills _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 116
10.3. Research Results for Advance Organizers _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 117
10.4. Graphic Organizer:French Class _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 120
11.1. Chances of Learning New Words in Context _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 125
11.2. Imagery-Based Instructional Techniques_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 127
11.3. Details _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 130
11.4. Types of Instruction and Effect on Learning_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 131
11.5. Organizing Ideas _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 134
11.6. Strategies for Correcting Misconceptions _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 135
11.7. Types of Word Problems _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 139
11.8. Effect Sizes for Various Approaches to Writing _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 142
12.1. Instructional Strategies for Use at the Beginning of a Unit _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 147
12.2. Example of Unit Goals:The Power of the Weather_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 148
12.3. Instructional Strategies to Use During a Unit:Monitoring Learning Goals_ _ _ _ 149
12.4. Instructional Strategies to Use During a Unit:Introducing New Knowledge_ _ _ 150
12.5. Sample Student Notebook_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 151
12.6. Instructional Strategies for Use During Unit:Practicing,Reviewing,
and Applying Knowledge _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 152
12.7. Sample Long-Term Project:What If ..._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 153
12.8. Instructional Strategies for Use at the End of a Unit:Helping Students
Determine How Well They Have Achieved Their Goals_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 154
1
A R
P P L Y I N G T H E E S E A R C H O N
I : A I W
N S T R U C T I O N N D E A H O S E
T H C
I M E A S O M E
W e educators stand at a special point of students.This was a conclusion of the
in time.This is not because a new now famous report entitled Equality of Edu-
decade,century,and millennium have cational Opportunity published in 1966 (see
begun (although this phenomenon cer- Coleman et al.,1966).The report is com-
tainly brings new opportunities and com- monly referred to as the “Coleman report”
plexities).Rather,it is because the “art”of in deference to its senior author,James
teaching is rapidly becoming the “science” Coleman.After analyzing data from some
of teaching,and this is a relatively new 600,000 students and 60,000 teachers in
phenomenon.It may come as a surprise to more than 4,000 schools,Coleman and his
some readers that up until about 30 years colleagues concluded that the quality of
ago,teaching had not been systematically schooling a student receives accounts for
studied in a scientific manner.This is not to only about 10 percent of the variance in
say that effective teaching strategies were student achievement.
absent before 1970.Indeed,educators have To understand what this means,con-
effectively used Socratic inquiry as an ex- sider the following example:Assume you
plicit instructional strategy for two and one are analyzing the science achievement
half millennia.At the beginning of the scores for a group of 100 eighth-grade stu-
1970s,however,researchers began to look dents from three different schools.These
at the effects of instruction on student students will no doubt vary greatly in their
learning.In fact,the decade before was science achievement.Some will have very
marked by the belief that school really low scores,some very high scores,and
made little difference in the achievement some in the middle.The findings from the
1
2
CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION THAT WORKS
Coleman report indicate that only 10 per- we now can look at the possible influence
cent of these differences are caused by the of schools and teachers with great hope.
quality of the schools these 100 students But how is this so? First,the technique
attend.In other words,going to the best of used by Coleman and Jencks of focusing on
the three schools as opposed to the worst the percentage of explained differences in
of the three schools,will change only about scores paints an unnecessarily gloomy pic-
10 percent of the differences in student ture.This point has been made quite elo-
achievement. quently and convincingly by researcher
A logical question is,What influences Robert Rosenthal and by researchers John
the other 90 percent? Coleman and his col- Hunter and Frank Schmidt.Those inter-
leagues concluded that the vast majority of ested in a technical discussion should con-
differences in student achievement can be sult Rosenthal (1991) and Hunter and
attributed to factors like the student’s nat- Schmidt (1990).Briefly,though,the more
ural ability or aptitude,the socioeconomic meaningful way to interpret the Coleman
status of the student,and the student’s and Jencks finding is in terms of percentile
home environment.Unfortunately,these gain in achievement.(We will explain this
are all things that cannot be changed by in more depth in a subsequent section.) To
schools.These same findings were corrobo- illustrate,the finding that schools account
rated by Harvard researcher Christopher for only 10 percent of the differences in
Jencks in his book Inequality:A Reassess- student achievement translates into a per-
ment of the Effects of Family and Schools in centile gain of about 23 points.That is,the
America (see Jencks et al.,1972).Jencks average student who attends a “good”
and his colleagues re-analyzed much of the school will have a score that is 23 per-
data used in the Coleman report.Again, centile points higher than the average stu-
the conclusion that schools make little dif- dent who attends a poor school.From this
ference was pre-eminent.As Jencks notes: perspective,schools definitely can make a
“Most differences in ...test scores are difference in student achievement.
due to factors that schools do not control” The second and more important reason
(p.109). that we now have a more optimistic view
The conclusions by Coleman and of what schools can do,is that research
Jencks did not paint a very hopeful picture conducted since the Coleman and Jencks
for educators and education.If most of studies has shown that an individual
what influences student achievement is out teacher can have a powerful effect on her
of the control of schools,why even try? students even if the school doesn’t.This find-
Fortunately,in retrospect,we now see some ing makes the most sense if we remember
serious flaws in these conclusions.In fact, that Coleman and Jencks examined the
APPLYING THE RESEARCH ON INSTRUCTION: AN IDEA WHOSE TIME HAS COME 3
average effect of schools.Within a given fective with students of all achievement levels,
regardless of the level of heterogeneity in their
school,though,there is a great deal of vari-
classrooms. If the teacher is ineffective, stu-
ation in the quality of instruction from
dents under the teacher’s tutelage will show
teacher to teacher.If we can identify what inadequate progress academically regardless
those highly effective teachers do,then of how similar or different they are regarding
their academic achievement (Wright et al.,
even more of the differences in student
1997,p.63).
achievement can be accounted for.
The conclusion that individual teachers
This book attempts to add practical per-
can have a profound influence on student
spectives to the optimistic picture pre-
learning even in schools that are relatively
sented by the research conducted since the
ineffective,was first noticed in the 1970s
works of Coleman and Jencks.This book
when we began to examine effective teach-
presents and exemplifies instructional
ing practices.In fact,after reviewing hun-
strategies that we have extracted from
dreds of studies conducted in the 1970s,re-
the research base on effective instruction.
searchers Jere Brophy and Thomas Good
Teachers can use these strategies to guide
(1986) commented:“The myth that teach-
classroom practice in such a way as to max-
ers do not make a difference in student
imize the possibility of enhancing student
learning has been refuted”(p.370).
achievement.Before presenting these
More recently,researcher William
strategies,however,we first briefly consider
Sanders and his colleagues (see Sanders &
the nature and quality of educational re-
Horn,1994;Wright,Horn,& Sanders,
search in general.
1997) have noted that the individual class-
room teacher has even more of an effect
on student achievement than originally
Attitudes About
thought.As a result of analyzing the
Educational Research
achievement scores of more than 100,000
students across hundreds of schools,their
conclusion was Although a great deal of educational re-
search has been and is currently being con-
The results of this study will document that
ducted in many universities and research
the most important factor affecting student
learning is the teacher.In addition,the results centers,some educators and noneducators
show wide variation in effectiveness among hold a fairly low opinion of that research.
teachers.The immediate and clear implication
Some people believe that research in edu-
of this finding is that seemingly more can be
cation is not as rigorous or conclusive as
done to improve education by improving the
research in the “hard sciences,”such as
effectiveness of teachers than by any other
single factor.Effective teachers appear to be ef- physics and chemistry.The general lack of