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Cisco Switching Black Book: A Practical In-Depth Guide to Configuring, Operating and Managing Cisco LAN Switches PDF

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Table of Contents Cisco Switching Black Book...............................................................................................................................1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................................4 Overview..................................................................................................................................................4 Is This Book for You?..............................................................................................................................4 How to Use This Book.............................................................................................................................4 The Black Book Philosophy....................................................................................................................5 Chapter 1: Network Switching Fundamentals.................................................................................................6 In Depth...................................................................................................................................................6 Physical Media and Switching Types......................................................................................................6 A Bit of History.......................................................................................................................................7 Networking Architectures.................................................................................................................7 The Pieces of Technology........................................................................................................................9 Repeaters.........................................................................................................................................10 Hubs.................................................................................................................................................10 Bridges.............................................................................................................................................11 Routers.............................................................................................................................................13 Switches...........................................................................................................................................13 Network Design.....................................................................................................................................14 Collision Domains...........................................................................................................................15 Broadcast Domains..........................................................................................................................16 Why Upgrade to Switches?.............................................................................................................16 Switched Forwarding......................................................................................................................19 Switched Network Bottlenecks.......................................................................................................20 The Rule of the Network Road........................................................................................................22 Switched Ethernet Innovations..............................................................................................................23 Full−Duplex Ethernet......................................................................................................................23 Fast Ethernet....................................................................................................................................23 Gigabit Ethernet..............................................................................................................................24 The Cisco IOS........................................................................................................................................24 Connecting to the Switch................................................................................................................25 Powering Up the Switch..................................................................................................................25 The Challenges.......................................................................................................................................27 Today’s Trend........................................................................................................................................27 Entering and Exiting Privileged EXEC Mode.......................................................................................28 Entering and Exiting Global Configuration Mode.................................................................................28 Entering and Exiting Interface Configuration Mode.............................................................................28 Entering and Exiting Subinterface Configuration Mode.......................................................................28 Saving Configuration Changes..............................................................................................................29 Chapter 2: Basic Switch Configuration..........................................................................................................30 In Depth.................................................................................................................................................30 Command−Line Interfaces....................................................................................................................30 Campus Hierarchical Switching Model.................................................................................................31 Access Layer...................................................................................................................................32 Distribution Layer...........................................................................................................................32 Core Layer.......................................................................................................................................33 Remote Network Monitoring.................................................................................................................33 Connecting to the Console Port.............................................................................................................34 Console Cable Pinouts.....................................................................................................................35 Console Connectors.........................................................................................................................36 i Table of Contents Chapter 2: Basic Switch Configuration The RJ−45−to−AUX Port Console Connector Pinouts...................................................................36 Switch IOSs...........................................................................................................................................38 The IOS Configuration Modes........................................................................................................38 Limiting Telnet Access..........................................................................................................................39 Implementing Privilege Levels..............................................................................................................39 Configuring an IOS−Based CLI Switch................................................................................................39 Setting the Login Passwords...........................................................................................................40 Setting Privilege Levels...................................................................................................................40 Assigning Allowable Commands....................................................................................................40 Setting the Console Port Time−out Value.......................................................................................40 Configuring the Telnet Time−out Value.........................................................................................41 Configuring the Hostname..............................................................................................................41 Configuring the Date and Time.......................................................................................................41 Configuring an IP Address and Netmask........................................................................................41 Configuring a Default Route and Gateway.....................................................................................41 Configuring Port Speed and Duplex...............................................................................................42 Enabling SNMP Contact.................................................................................................................42 Configuring a Set/Clear−Based CLI Switch..........................................................................................42 Logging On to a Switch...................................................................................................................42 Setting the Login and Enable Passwords........................................................................................43 Changing the Console Prompt.........................................................................................................43 Entering a Contact Name and Location Information......................................................................44 Configuring System and Time Information....................................................................................44 Configuring an IP Address and Netmask........................................................................................44 Configuring a Default Route and Gateway.....................................................................................45 Viewing the Default Routes............................................................................................................45 Configuring Port Speed and Duplex...............................................................................................45 Enabling SNMP...............................................................................................................................46 Configuring Trap Message Targets.................................................................................................46 Configuring a Menu−Driven IOS..........................................................................................................47 Configuring the Console Port..........................................................................................................48 Configuring Telnet..........................................................................................................................48 Configuring the Password...............................................................................................................48 Configuring an IP Address and Default Gateway...........................................................................48 Configuring SNMP..........................................................................................................................49 Configuring ROM..................................................................................................................................50 Entering ROM Configuration Mode...............................................................................................50 Booting ROM Mode from a Flash Device......................................................................................50 Configuring SNMP..........................................................................................................................51 Configuring RMON........................................................................................................................51 Configuring RMON on a Set/Clear−Based Interface.....................................................................51 Using Set/Clear Command Set Recall Key Sequences..........................................................................52 Using IOS−Based Command Editing Keys and Functions...................................................................52 Chapter 3: WAN Switching.............................................................................................................................54 In Depth.................................................................................................................................................54 WAN Transmission Media....................................................................................................................55 Synchronous Transport Signal (STS)..............................................................................................56 Cisco WAN Switches............................................................................................................................57 MGX 8200 Series............................................................................................................................57 IGX 8400 Series..............................................................................................................................58 ii Table of Contents Chapter 3: WAN Switching BPX 8600 Series Wide−Area Switches..........................................................................................58 MGX 8800 Series Wide−Area Edge Switches...............................................................................59 WAN Switch Hardware Overview........................................................................................................59 Cisco WAN Switch Network Topologies..............................................................................................60 Network Management............................................................................................................................61 The CLI...........................................................................................................................................61 WAN Manager................................................................................................................................61 Accessing and Setting Up IGX and BPX Switches...............................................................................62 Adding New Users..........................................................................................................................62 Displaying a User’s Password.........................................................................................................62 Changing a User’s Password...........................................................................................................62 Using the History Command...........................................................................................................63 Displaying a Summary of All Card Modules..................................................................................63 Displaying Detailed Information for a Card Module......................................................................63 Displaying the Power and Temperature of a Switch.......................................................................63 Displaying the ASM Statistics for BPX..........................................................................................63 Configuring the ASM Setting for BPX...........................................................................................63 Logging Out....................................................................................................................................63 Resetting the Switch........................................................................................................................63 Displaying Other Switches..............................................................................................................64 Setting the Switch Name.................................................................................................................64 Setting the Time Zone.....................................................................................................................64 Configuring the Time and Date.......................................................................................................64 Configuring the Control and Auxiliary Ports..................................................................................64 Modifying the Functions of the Control and Auxiliary Ports.........................................................64 Configuring the Printing Function..................................................................................................64 Configuring the LAN Interface.......................................................................................................64 Accessing the MGX 8850 and 8220......................................................................................................65 Adding New Users..........................................................................................................................65 Changing Passwords........................................................................................................................65 Assigning a Switch Hostname.........................................................................................................65 Displaying a Summary of All Modules...........................................................................................66 Displaying Detailed Information for the Current Card...................................................................66 Changing the Time and Date...........................................................................................................66 Displaying the Configuration of the Maintenance and Control Ports.............................................66 Displaying the IP Address...............................................................................................................66 Configuring the IP Interface............................................................................................................67 Displaying the Alarm Level of the Switch......................................................................................67 Chapter 4: LAN Switch Architectures............................................................................................................68 In Depth.................................................................................................................................................68 The Catalyst Crescendo Architecture....................................................................................................68 BUS.................................................................................................................................................68 ASICs..............................................................................................................................................69 The Crescendo Processors...............................................................................................................71 Crescendo Logic Units....................................................................................................................71 Other Cisco Switch Processors, Buses, ASICs, and Logic Units..........................................................72 CAM................................................................................................................................................72 AXIS Bus........................................................................................................................................72 CEF ASIC........................................................................................................................................73 Phoenix ASIC..................................................................................................................................75 iii Table of Contents Chapter 4: LAN Switch Architectures LCP..................................................................................................................................................75 SAGE ASIC....................................................................................................................................75 QTP ASIC.......................................................................................................................................75 QMAC.............................................................................................................................................76 Bridging Types......................................................................................................................................76 Source Route Bridging....................................................................................................................76 Source Route Transparent Bridging................................................................................................77 Source Route Translational Bridging..............................................................................................77 Transparent Bridging.......................................................................................................................77 Source Route Switching..................................................................................................................77 Switching Paths......................................................................................................................................78 Process Switching............................................................................................................................78 Fast Switching.................................................................................................................................78 Autonomous Switching...................................................................................................................79 Silicon Switching............................................................................................................................79 Optimum Switching........................................................................................................................79 Distributed Switching......................................................................................................................79 NetFlow Switching..........................................................................................................................79 System Message Logging......................................................................................................................80 Loading an Image on the Supervisor Engine III....................................................................................80 Booting the Supervisor Engine III from Flash.......................................................................................81 Setting the Boot Configuration Register................................................................................................81 Configuring Cisco Express Forwarding.................................................................................................81 Enabling CEF..................................................................................................................................81 Disabling CEF.................................................................................................................................81 Enabling dCEF................................................................................................................................82 Disabling dCEF...............................................................................................................................82 Disabling CEF on an Individual Interface.......................................................................................82 Configuring CEF Load Balancing...................................................................................................82 Disabling CEF Load Balancing.......................................................................................................82 Enabling Network Accounting for CEF..........................................................................................82 Setting Network Accounting for CEF to Collect Packet Numbers.................................................82 Viewing Network Accounting for CEF Statistics...........................................................................82 Viewing CEF Packet−Dropped Statistics.......................................................................................83 Viewing Non−CEF Path Packets....................................................................................................83 Disabling Per−Destination Load Sharing..............................................................................................83 Viewing the Adjacency Table on the 8500 GSR...................................................................................83 Clearing the Adjacency Table on the 8500 GSR...................................................................................83 Enabling Console Session Logging on a Set/Clear Command−Based IOS..........................................83 Enabling Telnet Session Logging on a Set/Clear Command−Based IOS.............................................84 Disabling Console Session Logging on a Set/Clear Command−Based IOS.........................................84 Disabling Telnet Session Logging on a Set/Clear Command−Based IOS............................................84 Setting the System Message Severity Levels on a Set/Clear Command−Based IOS............................84 Enabling the Logging Time Stamp on a Set/Clear Command−Based Switch......................................84 Disabling the Logging Time Stamp on a Set/Clear Command−Based Switch.....................................85 Configuring the Logging Buffer Size on a Set/Clear Command−Based Switch...................................85 Clearing the Server Logging Table........................................................................................................85 Disabling Server Logging......................................................................................................................85 Displaying the Logging Configuration..................................................................................................86 Displaying System Logging Messages..................................................................................................86 iv Table of Contents Chapter 5: Virtual Local Area Networks.......................................................................................................88 In Depth.................................................................................................................................................88 The Flat Network of Yesterday..............................................................................................................88 Why Use VLANs?.................................................................................................................................89 VLAN Basics..................................................................................................................................90 A Properly Switched Network........................................................................................................90 Switched Internetwork Security......................................................................................................91 Scaling with VLANs..............................................................................................................................92 VLAN Boundaries...........................................................................................................................92 VLAN Membership Types..............................................................................................................93 Traffic Patterns Flowing through the Network...............................................................................93 Cisco’s VLAN Recommendations..................................................................................................93 VLAN Trunking.....................................................................................................................................94 Trunk Types....................................................................................................................................94 LAN Emulation (LANE).................................................................................................................97 VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP)...........................................................................................................97 VTP Versions..................................................................................................................................98 VTP Advertisements.......................................................................................................................98 VTP Switch Modes.......................................................................................................................100 Methods for VLAN Identification.................................................................................................101 Dynamic Trunking Protocol..........................................................................................................101 InterVLAN Routing.............................................................................................................................101 Internal Route Processors..............................................................................................................102 How InterVLAN Routing Works..................................................................................................102 Configuring a Static VLAN on a Catalyst 5000 Series Switch...........................................................103 Configuring Multiple VLANs on a Catalyst 5000 Series Switch........................................................103 Creating VLANs on a Catalyst 1900EN Series...................................................................................103 Assigning a Static VLAN to an Interface on a 1900EN Series...........................................................104 Viewing the VLAN Configuration on a 1900 Series...........................................................................105 Viewing an Individual VLAN Configuration on a 1900 Series..........................................................105 Configuring a Trunk Port on a Cisco 5000 Series...............................................................................105 Mapping VLANs to a Trunk Port........................................................................................................107 Configuring a Trunk Port on a Cisco 1900EN Series..........................................................................107 Clearing VLANs from Trunk Links on a Cisco 5000 Series...............................................................107 Clearing VLANs from Trunk Links on a Cisco 1900EN Series.........................................................107 Verifying a Trunk Link Configuration on a 5000 Series.....................................................................108 Verifying a Trunk Link Configuration on a 1900EN Series................................................................108 Configuring the VTP Version on a Catalyst 5000 Switch...................................................................108 Configuring a VTP Domain on a Catalyst 1900 Switch......................................................................109 Setting a VTP Domain Password on a Catalyst Switch.......................................................................109 Configuring a Catalyst 1900 Switch as a VTP Server.........................................................................109 Configuring a Catalyst 1900 Switch as a VTP Client.........................................................................109 Configuring a Catalyst 1900 Switch for Transparent Mode................................................................109 Configuring VTP Pruning on a Catalyst 1900 Switch.........................................................................110 Configuring VTP on a Set/Clear CLI Switch......................................................................................110 Configuring VTP on a 1900 Cisco IOS CLI Switch...........................................................................110 Verifying the VTP Configuration on a Set/Clear CLI.........................................................................111 Displaying VTP Statistics....................................................................................................................111 Configuring VTP Pruning on a Set/Clear CLI Switch........................................................................112 Disabling Pruning for Unwanted VLANs............................................................................................112 Configuring IP InterVLAN Routing on an External Cisco Router......................................................112 Configuring IPX InterVLAN Routing on an External Router.............................................................113 v Table of Contents Chapter 6: InterVLAN and Basic Module Configuration..........................................................................114 In Depth...............................................................................................................................................114 Internal Route Processors....................................................................................................................114 Available Route Processors...........................................................................................................116 Routing Protocol Assignment.......................................................................................................120 Supervisor Engine Modules.................................................................................................................120 Supervisor Engines I and II...........................................................................................................120 Supervisor Engine III....................................................................................................................121 Using the Supervisor Engine.........................................................................................................122 Etherport Modules...............................................................................................................................122 Port Security..................................................................................................................................123 Manually Configured MAC Addresses.........................................................................................123 Determining the Slot Number in Which a Module Resides................................................................123 Accessing the Internal Route Processor from the Switch....................................................................124 Configuring a Hostname on the RSM..................................................................................................124 Assigning an IP Address and Encapsulation Type to an Ethernet Interface........................................125 Setting the Port Speed and Port Name on an Ethernet Interface.........................................................125 Configuring a Default Gateway on a Catalyst 5000............................................................................126 Verifying the IP Configuration on a Catalyst 5000.............................................................................126 Enabling RIP on an RSM.....................................................................................................................126 Viewing the RSM’s Running Configuration.......................................................................................127 Configuring InterVLAN Routing on an RSM.....................................................................................127 Configuring IPX InterVLAN Routing on the RSM.............................................................................128 Configuring AppleTalk InterVLAN Routing on an RSM...................................................................128 Viewing the RSM Configuration.........................................................................................................129 Assigning a MAC Address to a VLAN...............................................................................................129 Viewing the MAC Addresses..............................................................................................................129 Configuring Filtering on an Ethernet Interface....................................................................................130 Configuring Port Security on an Ethernet Module..............................................................................130 Clearing MAC Addresses....................................................................................................................131 Configuring the Catalyst 5000 Supervisor Engine Module.................................................................131 Setting the boot config−register on the Supervisor Engine Module....................................................132 Changing the Management VLAN on a Supervisor Engine................................................................133 Viewing the Supervisor Engine Configuration....................................................................................133 Configuring the Cisco 2621 External Router for ISL Trunking..........................................................134 Configuring Redundancy Using HSRP...............................................................................................135 Chapter 7: IP Multicast..................................................................................................................................137 In Depth...............................................................................................................................................137 IP Multicasting Overview....................................................................................................................137 Broadcast.......................................................................................................................................138 Unicast...........................................................................................................................................138 Multicast........................................................................................................................................139 IP Multicasting Addresses...................................................................................................................140 The Multicast IP Structure............................................................................................................140 Delivery of Multicast Datagrams..................................................................................................142 Multicast Distribution Tree...........................................................................................................142 Multicast Forwarding....................................................................................................................143 IGMP Protocols.............................................................................................................................143 Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)....................................................................................145 IGMPv1.........................................................................................................................................145 IGMPv2.........................................................................................................................................146 vi Table of Contents Chapter 7: IP Multicast Time to Live..................................................................................................................................147 Multicast at Layer 2.............................................................................................................................147 IGMP Snooping.............................................................................................................................147 Cisco Group Management Protocol..............................................................................................148 Router Group Management Protocol............................................................................................148 GARP Multicast Registration Protocol.........................................................................................149 Configuring IP Multicast Routing.......................................................................................................149 Disabling IP Multicast Routing.....................................................................................................149 Enabling PIM on an Interface.......................................................................................................149 Disabling PIM on an Interface......................................................................................................149 Configuring the Rendezvous Point................................................................................................150 Adding a Router to a Multicast Group.................................................................................................150 Configuring a Router to Be a Static Multicast Group Member....................................................150 Restricting Access to a Multicast Group.......................................................................................150 Changing the IGMP Version...............................................................................................................150 Changing the IGMP Host−Query Message Interval............................................................................151 Configuring Multicast Groups.............................................................................................................151 Removing Multicast Groups................................................................................................................151 Configuring Multicast Router Ports.....................................................................................................151 Displaying Multicast Routers........................................................................................................151 Removing the Multicast Router....................................................................................................152 Configuring IGMP Snooping...............................................................................................................152 Disabling IGMP Snooping............................................................................................................152 Configuring IGMP Fast−Leave Processing.........................................................................................152 Disabling IGMP Fast−Leave Processing......................................................................................152 Displaying IGMP Statistics.................................................................................................................153 Displaying Multicast Routers Learned from IGMP.............................................................................153 Displaying IGMP Multicast Groups....................................................................................................153 Configuring CGMP..............................................................................................................................154 Disabling CGMP...........................................................................................................................154 Enabling CGMP Fast−Leave Processing......................................................................................154 Disabling CGMP Fast−Leave Processing.....................................................................................154 Displaying CGMP Statistics..........................................................................................................154 Configuring RGMP on the Switch.......................................................................................................155 Disabling RGMP on the Switch....................................................................................................155 Configuring RGMP on the Router.......................................................................................................155 Disabling RGMP on the Router....................................................................................................155 Displaying RGMP Groups...................................................................................................................155 Displaying RGMP−Capable Router Ports...........................................................................................156 Displaying RGMP VLAN Statistics....................................................................................................156 Configuring GMRP..............................................................................................................................156 Disabling GMRP...........................................................................................................................157 Enabling GMRP on Individual Ports.............................................................................................157 Disabling GMRP on Individual Ports...........................................................................................157 Enabling GMRP Forward−All......................................................................................................157 Disabling GMRP Forward−All.....................................................................................................157 Configuring GMRP Registration...................................................................................................157 Displaying the GMRP Configuration............................................................................................158 Setting GMRP Timers...................................................................................................................158 Displaying GMRP Timers.............................................................................................................158 Configuring Bandwidth−Based Suppression.......................................................................................159 vii Table of Contents Chapter 7: IP Multicast Configuring Packet−Based Suppression..............................................................................................159 Disabling Multicast Suppression.........................................................................................................159 Chapter 8: WAN Cell Switching...................................................................................................................160 In Depth...............................................................................................................................................160 ATM Overview....................................................................................................................................160 LANE............................................................................................................................................161 ATM Protocols..............................................................................................................................162 ATM Circuit Switching.................................................................................................................162 ATM Cells.....................................................................................................................................162 The ATM Switch and ATM Endpoints.........................................................................................164 The ATM Reference Model..........................................................................................................164 Specifying ATM Connections.......................................................................................................166 ATM Addressing...........................................................................................................................167 Local Area Network Emulation (LANE).............................................................................................167 LANE Components.......................................................................................................................168 Integrated Local Management Interface (ILMI)...........................................................................172 LANE Communication..................................................................................................................172 LANE Configuration Guidelines...................................................................................................174 How LANE Works........................................................................................................................174 Implementing LANE.....................................................................................................................175 Configuring ATM on the 5000 Switch..........................................................................................175 Connecting in an ATM Network...................................................................................................177 Monitoring and Maintaining LANE....................................................................................................178 Accessing the ATM LANE Module....................................................................................................178 Displaying the Selector Field...............................................................................................................178 Configuring the LES/BUS...................................................................................................................179 Verifying the LES/BUS Configuration.........................................................................................179 Configuring a LEC for an ELAN.........................................................................................................179 Verifying a LEC Configuration on an ELAN...............................................................................180 Configuring the LECS...................................................................................................................181 Viewing the LANE Database........................................................................................................181 Binding the LECS Address to an Interface...................................................................................181 Verifying the LECS Configuration...............................................................................................182 Chapter 9: LightStream Switches.................................................................................................................183 In Depth...............................................................................................................................................183 LightStream 100..................................................................................................................................183 LightStream 1010................................................................................................................................184 LightStream 2020................................................................................................................................185 Neighborhood Discovery Function...............................................................................................186 Virtual Path Connections.....................................................................................................................186 LightStream Troubleshooting Tools....................................................................................................187 LightStream Boot Process.............................................................................................................187 Supported Troubleshooting Protocols...........................................................................................188 Snooping Mechanisms..................................................................................................................188 Multiprotocol Over ATM..............................................................................................................188 Configuring the Hostname...................................................................................................................189 Configuring an Enable Password.........................................................................................................189 Configuring the Processor Card Ethernet Interface.............................................................................189 Configuring Virtual Private Tunnels...................................................................................................190 viii Table of Contents Chapter 9: LightStream Switches Verifying an ATM Interface Connection Status..................................................................................190 Viewing the Configured Virtual Connections.....................................................................................191 Configuring the LECS ATM Address on a LightStream 1010 Switch...............................................191 Configuring the Advertised LECS Address.........................................................................................191 Viewing the LANE Configuration.......................................................................................................191 Viewing the Installed Modules............................................................................................................192 Configuring the MPC...........................................................................................................................193 Configuring the MPS...........................................................................................................................193 Changing the MPS Variables........................................................................................................193 Monitoring the MPS......................................................................................................................194 Enabling ILMI Autoconfiguration.......................................................................................................194 Configuring LANE on a LightStream 1010.........................................................................................194 Powering on the LightStream 100 ATM Switch.................................................................................195 Configuring the LS100 Switch............................................................................................................195 Recovering a Lost Password................................................................................................................196 Chapter 10: Layer 2 Redundant Links.........................................................................................................199 In Depth...............................................................................................................................................199 Layer 2 Switching Overview...............................................................................................................199 Frames..................................................................................................................................................199 Broadcast and Multicast Frames...................................................................................................200 Unknown Unicasts........................................................................................................................200 Layer 2 Network Loops.......................................................................................................................200 Danger! Data Loops!.....................................................................................................................201 Edsger Dijkstra’s Graph Theory....................................................................................................201 STP Root Bridges..........................................................................................................................202 Bridge Protocol Data Units...........................................................................................................203 Root Bridge Selection...................................................................................................................205 Spanning Tree Convergence Time................................................................................................207 STP Port States..............................................................................................................................208 Per−VLAN Spanning Tree............................................................................................................209 EtherChannel........................................................................................................................................209 Link Failure...................................................................................................................................210 Port Aggregation Protocol.............................................................................................................210 Fast Convergence Components of STP...............................................................................................211 PortFast..........................................................................................................................................211 UplinkFast.....................................................................................................................................211 BackboneFast................................................................................................................................212 Enabling STP on a Set/Clear Command−Based Switch......................................................................212 Enabling STP on a Set/Clear Command−Based Switch for All VLANs............................................213 Disabling STP on a Set/Clear Command−Based Switch.....................................................................213 Disabling STP on a Set/Clear Command−Based Switch by VLAN...................................................213 Viewing the STP Configuration on a Set/Clear Command−Based Switch.........................................213 Configuring STP on an IOS Command−Based Switch.......................................................................214 Disabling STP on an IOS Command−Based Switch...........................................................................214 Viewing the STP Configuration on a Command Line Switch.............................................................215 Configuring the STP Root Switch.......................................................................................................215 Configuring the STP Secondary Root Switch.....................................................................................215 Setting the Root Bridge for More than One VLAN on a Set/Clear Command−Based Switch...........216 Assigning a Port Cost to a Port Using the Set/Clear Command−Based IOS......................................216 Assigning a Port Cost to a Port Using a CLI−Based Switch...............................................................216 ix

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