Christian Theology: An Introduction

536 Pages·3.36 MB·English

by  Alister E. McGrath

Front Matter Page: iv
PREFACE Page: xxii
TO THE STUDENT: HOW TO USE THIS BOOK Page: xxv
TO THE TEACHER: HOW TO USE THIS BOOK Page: xxvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Page: xxix
PART ONE LANDMARKS: Periods, Themes, and Personalities of Christian Theology Page: 1
INTRODUCTION Page: 3
1 THE PATRISTIC PERIOD, C.100–C.700 Page: 5
THE EARLY CENTERS OF THEOLOGICAL ACTIVITY Page: 5
Figure 1.1 The ancient city of Carthage, the leading city of the Roman province of Africa. Page: 7
Map 1 The Roman Empire and the church in the fourth century. Page: 7
AN OVERVIEW OF THE PATRISTIC PERIOD Page: 7
A clarification of terms Page: 8
The theological agenda of the period Page: 8
Figure 1.2 The Roman emperor Constantine (306–37), whose conversion to Christianity gave the church a new freedom and influence throughout the empire. Page: 9
KEY THEOLOGIANS Page: 10
Justin Martyr (c.100–c.165) Page: 10
Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130–c.200) Page: 10
Tertullian (c.160–c.225) Page: 10
Origen (c.185–c.254) Page: 10
Cyprian of Carthage (died 258) Page: 11
Athanasius (c.293–373) Page: 11
The Cappadocian fathers Page: 11
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) Page: 11
KEY THEOLOGICAL DEBATES AND DEVELOPMENTS Page: 12
The extent of the New Testament canon Page: 12
The role of tradition: the Gnostic controversies Page: 13
The fixing of the ecumenical creeds Page: 14
Figure 1.3 The Council of Nicea (modern-day Iznik, in Turkey) achieved a consensus on the identity of Christ, expressed in a statement of faith often referred to as the Nicene creed. Page: 15
THE APOSTLES’ CREED Page: 15
THE NICENE CREED Page: 16
The two natures of Jesus Christ: the Arian controversy Page: 16
Schools Page: 16
Debates Page: 17
Councils Page: 17
The doctrine of the Trinity Page: 17
The doctrine of the church: the Donatist controversy Page: 18
The doctrine of grace: the Pelagian controversy Page: 18
KEY NAMES, WORDS, AND PHRASES Page: 20
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 1 Page: 20
SET 1 INTRODUCTORY Page: 20
SET 2 STANDARD LEVEL Page: 21
2 THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE RENAISSANCE, C.700–C.1500 Page: 22
ON DEFINING THE “MIDDLE AGES” Page: 22
Map 2 Main theological and ecclesiastical centers in western Europe during the Middle Ages. Page: 25
MEDIEVAL THEOLOGICAL LANDMARKS IN WESTERN EUROPE Page: 25
The Carolingian renaissance Page: 25
Figure 2.1 The ancient monastery of Fulda, founded in 744, became a leading center of theological scholarship and research during the ninth century. Page: 25
The rise of cathedral and monastic schools of theology Page: 26
The religious orders and their schools of theology Page: 27
The founding of the universities Page: 27
Peter Lombard's Four Books of the Sentences Page: 28
The rise of scholasticism Page: 28
The Italian Renaissance Page: 29
The rise of humanism Page: 30
MEDIEVAL THEOLOGICAL LANDMARKS IN EASTERN EUROPE Page: 30
Figure 2.2 The ancient city of Constantinople, the leading city of Byzantium, which fell to Turkish invaders in 1453. Page: 31
The emergence of Byzantine theology Page: 31
The iconoclastic controversy Page: 31
The hesychastic controversy Page: 32
The fall of Constantinople (1453) Page: 32
KEY THEOLOGIANS Page: 33
John of Damascus (c.676–749) Page: 33
Simeon the New Theologian (949–1022) Page: 33
Anselm of Canterbury (c.1033–1109) Page: 34
Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–74) Page: 34
Duns Scotus (c.1265–1308) Page: 35
William of Ockham (c.1285–1347) Page: 36
Erasmus of Rotterdam (c.1469–1536) Page: 36
Figure 2.3 Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (c.1469–1536), who played a major role in the northern European Renaissance and the early development of both the Protestant and Catholic Reformations. Page: 37
KEY THEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS Page: 37
The consolidation of the patristic heritage Page: 37
The exploration of the role of reason in theology Page: 38
The development of theological systems Page: 39
The development of sacramental theology Page: 39
The development of the theology of grace Page: 39
The role of Mary in the scheme of salvation Page: 39
Returning directly to the sources of Christian theology Page: 40
The critique of the Vulgate translation of Scripture Page: 40
KEY NAMES, WORDS, AND PHRASES Page: 41
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 2 Page: 42
3 THE AGE OF REFORMATION, C.1500–C.1750 Page: 43
INTRODUCING THE REFORMATION Page: 43
Reformation – or Reformations? Page: 44
THE DYNAMICS OF REFORMATION Page: 44
Map 3 Centers of theological and ecclesiastical activity at the times of the European Reformation. Page: 45
The German Reformation: Lutheranism Page: 46
Figure 3.1 The Protestant reformer Martin Luther (1483–1546), who played a leading role in the first phase of the Reformation and the development of its distinctive approach to theology. Page: 46
The Swiss Reformation: the Reformed church Page: 47
The radical Reformation: Anabaptism Page: 48
The English Reformation: Anglicanism Page: 48
The Catholic Reformation Page: 49
Figure 3.2 The Council of Trent, which began to meet in 1545, played a major role in the reformation of the Catholic church and the consolidation of its theological basis. Page: 50
The Second Reformation: Confessionalization Page: 50
A new concern for theological method Page: 51
The development of works of systematic theology Page: 51
POST-REFORMATION MOVEMENTS Page: 51
The consolidation of Catholicism Page: 52
Puritanism Page: 53
Pietism Page: 53
THE COPERNICAN AND GALILEAN CONTROVERSIES Page: 54
KEY THEOLOGIANS Page: 56
Martin Luther (1483–1546) Page: 56
Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) Page: 57
John Calvin (1509–64) Page: 57
Teresa of Avilà (1515–82) Page: 58
Theodore Beza (1519–1605) Page: 58
Roberto Bellarmine (1542–1621) Page: 58
Johann Gerhard (1582–1637) Page: 58
Jonathan Edwards (1703–58) Page: 58
KEY THEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS Page: 59
The sources of theology Page: 59
The doctrine of grace Page: 60
The doctrine of the sacraments Page: 60
The doctrine of the church Page: 60
DEVELOPMENTS IN THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE Page: 61
The catechisms Page: 61
Figure 3.3 John Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion, one of the most influential theological works of the sixteenth century, which first appeared in 1536. Page: 61
Confessions of faith Page: 62
Works of systematic theology Page: 63
KEY NAMES, WORDS, AND PHRASES Page: 65
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 3 Page: 65
4 THE MODERN PERIOD, C.1750 TO THE PRESENT Page: 66
THEOLOGY AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE WEST Page: 67
The Enlightenment critique of traditional theology Page: 67
The notion of revelation Page: 68
The status and interpretation of the Bible Page: 68
The identity and significance of Jesus Christ Page: 68
The doctrine of the Trinity Page: 69
The critique of miracles Page: 69
The rejection of original sin Page: 69
The problem of evil Page: 69
Romanticism and the renewal of the theological imagination Page: 69
Figure 4.1 The German Protestant theologian and pastor F. D. E. Schleiermacher (1768–1834), who played a leading role in formulating theological responses to Enlightenment rationalism. Page: 70
Marxism: an intellectual rival to Christianity Page: 71
The crisis of faith in Victorian England Page: 72
Darwinism: a new theory of human origins Page: 73
Postmodernism and a new theological agenda Page: 73
Biblical interpretation Page: 75
Systematic theology Page: 75
KEY THEOLOGIANS Page: 75
F. D. E. Schleiermacher (1768–1834) Page: 75
John Henry Newman (1801–90) Page: 75
Karl Barth (1886–1968) Page: 76
Paul Tillich (1886–1965) Page: 76
Karl Rahner (1904–84) Page: 76
Hans Urs von Balthasar (1905–88) Page: 77
Jürgen Moltmann (born 1926) Page: 77
Wolfhart Pannenberg (born 1928) Page: 77
DENOMINATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THEOLOGY Page: 77
Catholicism Page: 77
Figure 4.2 The Second Vatican Council, which met at the Vatican City, Rome, from 1962 to 1965, gave a new sense of direction to Catholicism, as well as clarifying its theological foundations. Page: 78
Orthodoxy Page: 79
Protestantism Page: 79
Evangelicalism Page: 80
Pentecostal and charismatic movements Page: 81
SOME RECENT WESTERN THEOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS AND TRENDS Page: 82
Liberal Protestantism Page: 82
Modernism Page: 84
Neo-orthodoxy Page: 85
Figure 4.3 The Swiss Protestant theologian Karl Barth (1886–1968), whose Church Dogmatics is widely regarded as one of the most significant works of twentieth-century theology. Page: 86
La ressourcement, or La nouvelle théologie Page: 87
Feminism Page: 88
The maleness of God (see pp. 197–9) Page: 88
The nature of sin Page: 89
Pastoral theology Page: 89
The person of Christ (see pp. 336–7) Page: 89
Liberation theology Page: 89
Biblical hermeneutics Page: 91
The nature of salvation (see p. 341) Page: 91
Black theology Page: 91
Postliberalism Page: 92
Systematic theology Page: 93
Christian ethics Page: 93
Radical orthodoxy Page: 93
THEOLOGIES OF THE DEVELOPING WORLD Page: 94
India Page: 94
Africa Page: 95
KEY NAMES, WORDS, AND PHRASES Page: 96
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 4 Page: 97
PART TWO SOURCES AND METHODS Page: 99
5 GETTING STARTED: Preliminaries Page: 101
DEFINING THEOLOGY Page: 101
A working definition of theology Page: 101
The historical development of the idea of theology Page: 102
The development of theology as an academic discipline Page: 102
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THEOLOGY Page: 104
Biblical studies Page: 104
Systematic theology Page: 105
Philosophical theology Page: 106
Historical theology Page: 107
Pastoral theology Page: 108
Spirituality, or mystical theology Page: 108
THE QUESTION OF PROLEGOMENA Page: 110
COMMITMENT AND NEUTRALITY IN THEOLOGY Page: 111
ORTHODOXY AND HERESY Page: 113
Historical aspects Page: 113
Theological aspects Page: 113
THE THEOLOGY OF THE RELATION OF CHRISTIANITY AND SECULAR CULTURE Page: 115
Justin Martyr (c.100–c.165) Page: 115
Tertullian (c.160–c.225) Page: 115
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) Page: 116
Figure 5.1 Augustine of Hippo (354–430), widely regarded as one of the most important and influential western theologians. Page: 117
The twentieth century: H. Richard Niebuhr (1894–1962) Page: 118
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 5 Page: 119
6 THE SOURCES OF THEOLOGY Page: 120
SCRIPTURE Page: 120
The Old Testament Page: 120
The New Testament Page: 121
Figure 6.1 The Codex Sinaiticus, one of the oldest manuscripts of the Greek Bible, produced in the fourth century. Page: 122
Other works: deutero-canonical and apocryphal writings Page: 122
The relation of the Old and New Testaments Page: 123
Box 6.1 Abbreviations of the books of the Bible Page: 124
Box 6.2 Referring to books of the Bible Page: 125
Box 6.3 Common terms used in relation to the Bible Page: 125
The canon of Scripture: historical and theological issues Page: 126
Historical issues Page: 126
Theological issues Page: 127
The Word of God Page: 128
Narrative theology Page: 129
Methods of interpretation of Scripture Page: 130
Figure 6.2 The Quadriga (four-horsed chariot) on the Brandenburg Gate, Berlin. The image of the four-horsed chariot was regularly used by medieval biblical commentators as an analogy for the four methods of biblical interpretation. Page: 133
Theories of the inspiration of Scripture Page: 135
TRADITION Page: 137
Figure 6.3 The passing on of the Christian tradition in the preaching of St. Paul, according to Raphael Sanzio, 1515–16. Page: 138
A single-source theory of tradition Page: 140
A dual-source theory of tradition Page: 140
The total rejection of tradition Page: 141
Theology and worship: the importance of liturgical tradition Page: 141
REASON Page: 142
Reason and revelation: three models Page: 142
Theology is a rational discipline Page: 143
Theology is the republication of the insights of reason Page: 143
Theology is redundant; reason reigns supreme Page: 143
Deism Page: 143
Enlightenment rationalism Page: 144
Criticisms of Enlightenment rationalism Page: 145
RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE Page: 146
Existentialism: a philosophy of human experience Page: 147
Experience and theology: two approaches Page: 148
Experience as the basis of theology Page: 148
Theology as the interpreter of experience Page: 149
Ludwig Feuerbach's critique of experience-based theologies Page: 150
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 6 Page: 151
7 KNOWLEDGE OF GOD: Natural and Revealed Page: 152
THE IDEA OF REVELATION Page: 152
MODELS OF REVELATION Page: 153
Revelation as doctrine Page: 154
Revelation as presence Page: 155
Revelation as experience Page: 156
Revelation as history Page: 157
NATURAL THEOLOGY: ITS SCOPE AND LIMITS Page: 158
Thomas Aquinas on natural theology Page: 158
John Calvin on natural theology Page: 160
The Reformed tradition on natural theology Page: 161
God's two books: nature and Scripture Page: 162
APPROACHES TO DISCERNING GOD IN NATURE Page: 162
Human reason Page: 162
The ordering of the world Page: 162
The beauty of the world Page: 163
OBJECTIONS TO NATURAL THEOLOGY Page: 163
A theological objection: Karl Barth Page: 164
A theological response: Thomas F. Torrance Page: 164
A philosophical objection: Alvin Plantinga Page: 165
A philosophical response: William P. Alston Page: 166
A debate: Karl Barth versus Emil Brunner (1934) Page: 167
THE NATURAL SCIENCES AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY: MODELS OF INTERACTION Page: 168
The continuity between science and theology Page: 168
The distinctiveness of science and theology Page: 169
The convergence of science and theology Page: 169
The opposition of science and theology Page: 170
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 7 Page: 170
8 PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY: Dialogue and Debate Page: 171
Figure 8.1 Pope John Paul II (1920–2005), formerly the Polish Cardinal Karol Józef Wojtyla, who issued the important encyclical letter Fides et ratio (Faith and Reason) in 1998. Page: 172
PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY: THE NOTION OF THE “HANDMAID” Page: 173
Platonism Page: 174
Figure 8.2 Plato and Aristotle, as depicted by Raphael in 1510–11. Plato (left) holds a copy of his dialogue Timaeus, while Aristotle (right) his Nicomachean Ethics. Note how Plato is pointing vertically, and Aristotle horizontally, perhaps hinting at Plato's notion of the transcendent world of Forms, and Aristotle's emphasis upon the natural world. Page: 175
Aristotelianism Page: 175
Verification and falsification: can Christian ideas be proved? Page: 176
Realism: to what do theological statements refer? Page: 178
CAN GOD'S EXISTENCE BE PROVED? Page: 179
Anselm of Canterbury's ontological argument Page: 180
Thomas Aquinas's “Five Ways” Page: 182
Figure 8.3 The great medieval philosopher and theologian Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–74), noted for his landmark contributions to the debate about the existence of God. Page: 183
The kalam argument Page: 184
A classic argument from design: William Paley Page: 185
THE NATURE OF THEOLOGICAL LANGUAGE Page: 188
Apophatic and kataphatic approaches Page: 188
Analogy Page: 189
Metaphor Page: 191
Accommodation Page: 192
A case study: the Copernican debate Page: 193
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 8 Page: 194
PART THREE CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY Page: 195
9 THE DOCTRINE OF GOD Page: 197
IS GOD MALE? Page: 197
Figure 9.1 Statue in Norwich Cathedral of the English mystical writer Julian of Norwich (c.1342–1416), best known for her Revelations of Divine Love. Page: 199
A PERSONAL GOD Page: 199
Defining “person” Page: 200
Dialogical personalism: Martin Buber Page: 201
CAN GOD SUFFER? Page: 203
The classic view: the impassibility of God Page: 204
A suffering God: Jürgen Moltmann Page: 204
The death of God? Page: 207
THE OMNIPOTENCE OF GOD Page: 209
Defining omnipotence Page: 209
The two powers of God Page: 210
The notion of divine self-limitation Page: 211
GOD'S ACTION IN THE WORLD Page: 212
Deism: God acts through the laws of nature Page: 212
Figure 9.2 William Blake's watercolor Ancient of Days (1794), which portrays God in a deistical manner. Note how God is represented as the designer and creator of the world, holding a pair of calipers as a symbol of accurate design. Page: 212
Thomism: God acts through secondary causes Page: 213
Process theology: God acts through persuasion Page: 214
GOD AS CREATOR Page: 215
Development of the doctrine of creation Page: 215
Figure 9.3 Michelangelo's fresco Creation of Adam (c.1511) in the Sistine Chapel. Note how God is depicted in traditional male form, superimposed upon a backdrop which has the shape of a human brain. This may be an attempt by Michelangelo to portray the “mind of God,” expressed in the rationality of the created order. Page: 216
Creation and the rejection of dualism Page: 217
Augustine of Hippo's doctrine of creation Page: 218
The doctrine of creation ex nihilo Page: 219
Implications of the doctrine of creation Page: 220
Models of God as creator Page: 221
Emanation Page: 221
Construction Page: 221
Artistic expression Page: 222
Creation and Christian approaches to ecology Page: 222
THEODICIES: THE PROBLEM OF EVIL Page: 223
Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130–c.200) Page: 224
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) Page: 225
Karl Barth (1886–1968) Page: 225
Alvin Plantinga (born 1932) Page: 226
Other recent contributions Page: 226
THE HOLY SPIRIT Page: 227
Models of the Holy Spirit Page: 227
The debate over the divinity of the Holy Spirit Page: 228
Augustine of Hippo: the Spirit as bond of love Page: 230
The functions of the Spirit Page: 231
The illumination of revelation Page: 231
The appropriation of salvation Page: 232
The energization of the Christian life Page: 232
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 9 Page: 233
10 THE DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY Page: 234
THE ORIGINS OF THE CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY Page: 234
The apparent illogicality of the doctrine Page: 234
The Trinity as a statement about Jesus Christ Page: 235
The Trinity as a statement about the Christian God Page: 236
Islamic critiques of the doctrine of the Trinity Page: 237
THE BIBLICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY Page: 238
THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE DOCTRINE Page: 239
The emergence of the trinitarian vocabulary Page: 239
Trinitas Page: 239
Persona Page: 239
Substantia Page: 240
The emergence of trinitarian concepts Page: 240
Perichoresis Page: 241
Appropriation Page: 241
Rationalist critiques of trinitarianism: the eclipse of the Trinity, 1700–1900 Page: 242
The problem of visualization: analogies of the Trinity Page: 243
Figure 10.1 Andrei Rublev's famous icon of the Trinity (1410). The icon actually depicts the three angels who visited Abraham at the Oak of Mamre (Genesis 18), traditionally seen as a “type” of the Trinity. Page: 243
“Economic” and “essential” approaches to the Trinity Page: 243
TWO TRINITARIAN HERESIES Page: 244
Modalism: chronological and functional Page: 244
Tritheism Page: 245
THE FILIOQUE CONTROVERSY Page: 247
Figure 10.2 The eastern approach to the Trinity. Page: 247
Figure 10.3 The western approach to the Trinity. Page: 247
THE TRINITY: SIX CLASSIC AND CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES Page: 249
The Cappadocian fathers Page: 250
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) Page: 250
Karl Barth (1886–1968) Page: 252
Karl Rahner (1904–84) Page: 254
Figure 10.4 The German Catholic theologian Karl Rahner (1904–84), widely regarded as one of the most significant theological voices of the twentieth century. Page: 254
John Macquarrie (1919–2007) Page: 255
Robert Jenson (born 1930) Page: 256
SOME DISCUSSIONS OF THE TRINITY IN RECENT THEOLOGY Page: 257
F. D. E. Schleiermacher on the dogmatic location of the Trinity Page: 257
Jürgen Moltmann on the social Trinity Page: 258
Eberhard Jüngel on the Trinity and metaphysics Page: 258
Catherine Mowry LaCugna on the Trinity and salvation Page: 259
Sarah Coakley on feminism and the Trinity Page: 260
THE TRINITARIAN RENAISSANCE: SOME EXAMPLES Page: 261
A trinitarian theology of mission Page: 262
A trinitarian theology of worship Page: 262
A trinitarian theology of atonement Page: 263
A trinitarian ecclesiology Page: 263
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 10 Page: 264
11 THE DOCTRINE OF THE PERSON OF CHRIST Page: 265
THE PLACE OF JESUS CHRIST IN CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY Page: 266
Jesus Christ is the historical point of departure for Christianity Page: 266
Jesus Christ reveals God Page: 267
Jesus Christ is the bearer of salvation Page: 267
Jesus Christ defines the shape of the redeemed life Page: 268
NEW TESTAMENT CHRISTOLOGICAL TITLES Page: 268
Messiah Page: 268
Son of God Page: 269
Son of Man Page: 270
Lord Page: 270
Savior Page: 271
God Page: 271
Jesus is the savior of humanity Page: 272
Jesus is worshiped Page: 272
Jesus reveals God Page: 272
THE PATRISTIC DEBATE OVER THE PERSON OF CHRIST Page: 273
Early contributions: from Justin Martyr to Origen Page: 273
The Arian controversy Page: 274
The Alexandrian school Page: 277
The Antiochene school Page: 278
The “communication of attributes” Page: 280
Adolf von Harnack on the evolution of patristic Christology Page: 281
THE RELATION OF THE INCARNATION AND THE FALL IN MEDIEVAL CHRISTOLOGY Page: 282
THE RELATION BETWEEN THE PERSON AND WORK OF CHRIST Page: 282
CHRISTOLOGICAL MODELS: CLASSICAL AND CONTEMPORARY Page: 284
Figure 11.1 A classic visual presentation of the Chalcedonian understanding of Christ. The image of Christos Pantokrator (“Christ, the ruler of all”) represents Christ as a human figure with divine authority. Page: 285
The substantial presence of God in Christ Page: 285
Christ as mediator between God and humanity Page: 286
The revelational presence of God in Christ Page: 287
Christ as a symbolic presence of God Page: 289
Christ as the bearer of the Holy Spirit Page: 289
Figure 11.2 The baptism of Christ, according to Piero della Francesca (c.1420–1492). Note the representation of the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove. Adoptionist Christologies identified this as the moment at which Jesus of Nazareth was endowed with divinity. Page: 290
Christ as the example of a godly life Page: 291
Christ as a hero Page: 292
Kenotic approaches to Christology Page: 293
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 11 Page: 294
12 FAITH AND HISTORY: The Christological Agenda of Modernity Page: 295
THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND CHRISTOLOGY Page: 295
The philosophical uselessness of history Page: 296
The critique of miracles Page: 296
The development of doctrinal criticism Page: 297
THE PROBLEM OF FAITH AND HISTORY Page: 297
The chronological difficulty Page: 298
The metaphysical difficulty Page: 298
The existential difficulty Page: 299
QUESTING FOR THE HISTORICAL JESUS Page: 299
Figure 12.1 John Everett Millais's representation of Jesus of Nazareth in his parents’ house (1849–50) caused an outcry at the time, on account of his realist depiction of a poor working household, shorn of traditional sacred symbolism. In fact, Millais works several symbols of the crucifixion into the painting, such as the wood, the nails, a cut in Christ's hand, and blood on his foot. In many ways, the naturalism of this picture corresponds to that of the “quest for the historical Jesus.” Page: 300
The original quest of the historical Jesus Page: 300
The quest for the religious personality of Jesus Page: 301
The critique of the quest, 1890–1910 Page: 302
The apocalyptic critique Page: 302
The skeptical critique Page: 303
The dogmatic critique Page: 304
The quest suspended: Rudolf Bultmann Page: 305
The new quest of the historical Jesus Page: 306
The third quest of the historical Jesus Page: 307
THE RESURRECTION OF CHRIST: EVENT AND MEANING Page: 309
The Enlightenment: the resurrection as non-event Page: 309
Figure 12.2 A traditional representation of the resurrection of Christ by Piero della Francesca (c.1420–1492). Page: 309
David Friedrich Strauss: the resurrection as myth Page: 310
Rudolf Bultmann: the resurrection as an event in the experience of the disciples Page: 311
Karl Barth: the resurrection as an historical event beyond critical inquiry Page: 311
Wolfhart Pannenberg: the resurrection as an historical event open to critical inquiry Page: 312
Resurrection and the Christian hope Page: 314
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 12 Page: 314
13 THE DOCTRINE OF SALVATION IN CHRIST Page: 315
Figure 13.1 The crucifixion as depicted by Matthias Grünewald in an altarpiece for the monastery of St. Anthony at Isenheim, Alsace (c.1513), which offered a ministry to those with skin diseases. Note how Christ is depicted as pock-marked, bearing the same infirmities as those he came to heal. Page: 316
CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO SALVATION Page: 316
Salvation is linked with Jesus Christ Page: 317
Salvation is shaped by Jesus Christ Page: 318
The eschatological dimension of salvation Page: 318
THE FOUNDATIONS OF SALVATION: THE CROSS OF CHRIST Page: 319
The cross as a sacrifice Page: 320
The cross as a victory Page: 322
Figure 13.2 Albrecht Dürer's The Harrowing of Hell (1510), depicting Christ liberating the souls from Hell. Christ is portrayed as reaching through the broken gates of Hell (note the smashed door to the bottom left), and taking hold of Adam and Eve, thus representing Christ's redemption of the human race as a whole. Page: 324
The cross and forgiveness Page: 326
Representation Page: 328
Participation Page: 328
Substitution Page: 329
The cross as a demonstration of God's love Page: 331
Violence and the cross: the theory of René Girard Page: 335
“CAN A MALE SAVIOR SAVE WOMEN?” FEMINISTS ON ATONEMENT Page: 336
MODELS OF SALVATION IN CHRIST: CLASSICAL AND CONTEMPORARY Page: 337
Some Pauline images of salvation Page: 338
Deification: being made divine Page: 339
Righteousness in the sight of God Page: 340
Personal holiness Page: 340
Authentic human existence Page: 341
Political liberation Page: 341
Spiritual freedom Page: 342
THE APPROPRIATION OF SALVATION IN CHRIST Page: 342
The institutionalization of salvation: the church Page: 342
The privatization of salvation: personal faith Page: 343
THE SCOPE OF SALVATION IN CHRIST Page: 344
Universalism: all will be saved Page: 344
Only believers will be saved Page: 345
Particular redemption: only the elect will be saved Page: 346
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 13 Page: 347
14 THE DOCTRINES OF HUMAN NATURE, SIN, AND GRACE Page: 348
THE PLACE OF HUMANITY WITHIN CREATION: EARLY REFLECTIONS Page: 348
The image of God Page: 348
The concept of sin Page: 350
AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO AND THE PELAGIAN CONTROVERSY Page: 351
The “freedom of the will” Page: 351
The nature of sin Page: 352
The nature of grace Page: 353
The basis of salvation Page: 354
THE MEDIEVAL SYNTHESIS OF THE DOCTRINE OF GRACE Page: 355
The Augustinian legacy Page: 355
The medieval distinction between actual and habitual grace Page: 356
The late medieval critique of habitual grace Page: 357
The medieval debate over the nature and grounds of merit Page: 357
THE REFORMATION DEBATES OVER THE DOCTRINE OF GRACE Page: 358
From “salvation by grace” to “justification by faith” Page: 358
Martin Luther's theological breakthrough Page: 359
Luther on justifying faith Page: 360
The concept of forensic justification Page: 360
John Calvin on justification Page: 362
The Council of Trent on justification Page: 362
The nature of justification Page: 363
The nature of justifying righteousness Page: 363
The nature of justifying faith Page: 364
The assurance of salvation Page: 364
THE DOCTRINE OF PREDESTINATION Page: 365
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) Page: 365
Catholic debates: Thomism, Molinism, and Jansenism Page: 366
Protestant debates: Calvinism and Arminianism Page: 367
Karl Barth (1886–1968) Page: 369
Predestination and economics: the Weber thesis Page: 370
THE DARWINIAN CONTROVERSY AND THE NATURE OF HUMANITY Page: 371
Figure 14.1 Charles Darwin (1809–82), whose theory of natural selection led to significant theological debates over the interpretation of the Bible, the age of the universe, and the origins and status of humanity. Page: 372
Young earth creationism Page: 372
Old earth creationism Page: 373
Intelligent design Page: 373
Evolutionary theism Page: 373
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 14 Page: 374
15 THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH Page: 375
BIBLICAL MODELS OF THE CHURCH Page: 375
The Old Testament Page: 375
The New Testament Page: 376
THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF ECCLESIOLOGY Page: 377
Figure 15.1 The martyrdom of St. Peter in the city of Rome, as depicted by Giotto di Bondone (c.1330). According to tradition, Peter was martyred by being crucified upside down. The death of Peter in the “eternal city” did much to establish its pre-eminence within the early Christian world. Page: 378
THE DONATIST CONTROVERSY Page: 378
EARLY PROTESTANT DOCTRINES OF THE CHURCH Page: 381
Martin Luther (1483–1546) Page: 381
John Calvin (1509–64) Page: 382
The radical Reformation Page: 383
CHRIST AND THE CHURCH: SOME TWENTIETH-CENTURY THEMES Page: 385
Christ is present sacramentally Page: 385
Christ is present through the word Page: 387
Christ is present through the Spirit Page: 387
THE SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL ON THE CHURCH Page: 388
The church as communion Page: 389
The church as the people of God Page: 390
The church as a charismatic community Page: 390
THE “NOTES” OF THE CHURCH Page: 390
One Page: 391
Holy Page: 394
Catholic Page: 395
Apostolic Page: 397
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 15 Page: 399
16 THE DOCTRINE OF THE SACRAMENTS Page: 400
THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF SACRAMENTAL THEOLOGY Page: 400
Figure 16.1 Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii (1784–5) depicts a sacred military oath being sworn to the Roman state by the three sons of Horace. This idea of a “sacred oath” (Latin: sacramentum) came to play a significant role in Christian thinking, especially in the western church, signifying the commitment of believers to one another, and to God. Page: 402
THE DEFINITION OF A SACRAMENT Page: 402
THE DONATIST CONTROVERSY: SACRAMENTAL EFFICACY Page: 405
THE MULTIPLE FUNCTIONS OF THE SACRAMENTS Page: 407
Sacraments convey grace Page: 407
Sacraments strengthen faith Page: 408
Sacraments enhance unity and commitment within the church Page: 409
Sacraments reassure us of God's promises toward us Page: 410
A case study in complexity: the functions of the Eucharist Page: 411
Recollection: looking backward Page: 411
Figure 16.2 The theological functions of the Eucharist. Page: 412
Anticipation: looking forward Page: 412
Figure 16.3 The Last Supper, as depicted by Leonardo da Vinci for the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan (1498). The elements of a traditional Passover meal can be seen on the table, as described in the gospels. Page: 413
Affirming individual faith Page: 414
Affirming corporate belonging Page: 414
THE EUCHARIST: THE QUESTION OF THE REAL PRESENCE Page: 414
The ninth-century debates over the real presence Page: 415
Medieval views on the relation of “sign” and “sacrament” Page: 416
Transubstantiation Page: 417
Transignification and transfinalization Page: 418
Consubstantiation Page: 419
A real absence: memorialism Page: 420
THE DEBATE CONCERNING INFANT BAPTISM Page: 420
Infant baptism remits the guilt of original sin Page: 421
Infant baptism is grounded in God's covenant with the church Page: 422
Infant baptism is unjustified Page: 422
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 16 Page: 423
17 CHRISTIANITY AND THE WORLD RELIGIONS Page: 424
WESTERN PLURALISM AND THE QUESTION OF OTHER RELIGIONS Page: 425
APPROACHES TO RELIGIONS Page: 426
The Enlightenment: religions as a corruption of the original religion of nature Page: 427
Ludwig Feuerbach: religion as an objectification of human feeling Page: 428
Karl Marx: religion as the product of socioeconomic alienation Page: 429
Figure 17.1 Karl Marx (1818–83), noted for his criticism of religion as the product of social and economic factors. Page: 430
Sigmund Freud: religion as wish-fulfillment Page: 430
Emile Durkheim: religion and ritual Page: 431
Mircea Eliade: religion and myth Page: 432
Karl Barth and Dietrich Bonhoeffer: religion as a human invention Page: 432
Trinitarian theologies of religion Page: 434
CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO OTHER RELIGIONS Page: 435
Exclusivism Page: 435
Inclusivism Page: 437
Pluralism Page: 441
Figure 17.2 John Hick (born 1922), who developed a “pluralist” approach to religious traditions, arguing that they all represented different, yet equally valid, responses to the same ultimate reality. Page: 441
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 17 Page: 443
18 THE LAST THINGS: The Christian Hope Page: 444
DEVELOPMENTS IN THE DOCTRINE OF THE LAST THINGS Page: 445
The New Testament Page: 445
Early Christianity and Roman beliefs about reunion after death Page: 446
Augustine: the two cities Page: 447
Joachim of Fiore: the three ages Page: 448
Dante Alighieri: the Divine Comedy Page: 449
Figure 18.1 William Blake's depiction of the fifth circle of Dante's Hell, in which Dante and Virgil arrive at the Stygian marsh. Page: 450
Hope in the face of death: Jeremy Taylor Page: 450
The Enlightenment: eschatology as superstition Page: 451
The twentieth century: the rediscovery of eschatology Page: 451
Rudolf Bultmann: the demythologization of eschatology Page: 452
Jürgen Moltmann: the theology of hope Page: 453
Helmut Thielicke: ethics and eschatology Page: 454
Dispensationalism: the structures of eschatology Page: 455
Spe salvi: Benedict XVI on the Christian hope Page: 456
Figure 18.2 Benedict XVI (born 1927), formerly Archbishop Joseph Alois Ratzinger. Page: 457
THE LAST THINGS Page: 457
Hell Page: 457
Purgatory Page: 459
The millennium Page: 460
Amillennialism Page: 460
Premillennialism Page: 461
Postmillennialism Page: 461
Heaven Page: 461
Figure 18.3 Dante and Beatrice gaze on God, the source of all light, having reached the end of their theological pilgrimage, as depicted by Gustave Doré, 1861. Page: 464
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 18 Page: 464
Back Matter Page: 465
A GLOSSARY OF THEOLOGICAL TERMS Page: 465
SOURCES OF CITATIONS Page: 472
INTRODUCTION Page: 472
CHAPTER 1 Page: 472
CHAPTER 2 Page: 472
CHAPTER 3 Page: 472
CHAPTER 4 Page: 472
CHAPTER 5 Page: 472
CHAPTER 6 Page: 473
CHAPTER 7 Page: 473
CHAPTER 8 Page: 474
CHAPTER 9 Page: 474
CHAPTER 10 Page: 475
CHAPTER 11 Page: 475
CHAPTER 12 Page: 476
CHAPTER 13 Page: 476
CHAPTER 14 Page: 477
CHAPTER 15 Page: 478
CHAPTER 16 Page: 479
CHAPTER 17 Page: 480
CHAPTER 18 Page: 480
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS OF FIGURES Page: 481
INDEX Page: 482