Chemical Sensors and Biosensors: Fundamentals and Applications

569 Pages·2012·14.41 MB·English

by  Florinel?Gabriel Banica(auth.)

Chemical Sensors and Biosensors
Chemical Sensors and Biosensors
Fundamentals and Applications
Florinel-Gabriel B(cid:2)anic(cid:2)a
DepartmentofChemistry,
NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology(NTNU),Trondheim,Norway
EditorialAdvisor
ProfessorArnoldGeorgeFogg,
VisitingProfessor,UniversityofBedfordshire
Thiseditionfirstpublished2012
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Banica,Florinel-Gabriel.
Chemicalsensorsandbiosensors:fundamentalsandapplications/
Florinel-GabrielBanica,DepartmentofChemistry,NorwegianUniversityof
Technology,Norway.
pagescm
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN978-0-470-71066-1(cloth)–ISBN978-0-470-71067-8(pbk.) 1.
Chemicaldetectors.2. Biosensors.I. Title.
TP159.C46B362012
543–dc23
2012028141
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.
HBISBN:9780470710661
PBISBN:9780470710678
Setin10/12ptTimesbyThomsonDigital,Noida,India
DedicatedtoAnaandIrina
Summary Contents
1 WhatareChemicalSensors? 1
2 ProteinStructureandProperties 21
3 EnzymesandEnzymaticSensors 28
4 MathematicalModelingofEnzymaticSensors 50
5 MaterialsandMethodsinChemical-SensorManufacturing 66
6 Affinity-BasedRecognition 101
7 NucleicAcidsinChemicalSensors 118
8 NanomaterialApplicationsinChemicalSensors 135
9 ThermochemicalSensors 157
10 PotentiometricSensors 165
11 ChemicalSensorsBasedonSemiconductorElectronicDevices 217
12 ResistiveGasSensors(Chemiresistors) 246
13 DynamicElectrochemistryTransductionMethods 258
14 AmperometricEnzymeSensors 314
15 MathematicalModelingofMediatedAmperometricEnzymeSensors 332
16 ElectrochemicalAffinityandNucleicAcidSensors 347
17 Electrical-Impedance-BasedSensors 367
18 OpticalSensors–Fundamentals 404
19 OpticalSensors–Applications 435
20 NanomaterialApplicationsinOpticalTransduction 454
21 Acoustic-WaveSensors 473
22 MicrocantileverSensors 507
23 ChemicalSensorsBasedonMicroorganisms,LivingCellsandTissues 518
Contents
Preface xix
Acknowledgments xxi
ListofSymbols xxiii
ListofAcronyms xxxi
1 WhatareChemicalSensors? 1
1.1 ChemicalSensors:DefinitionandComponents 1
1.2 RecognitionMethods 2
1.2.1 GeneralAspects 2
1.2.2 IonRecognition 3
1.2.3 RecognitionbyAffinityInteractions 3
1.2.4 RecognitionbyNucleicAcids 3
1.2.5 RecognitionbyEnzymes 4
1.2.6 RecognitionbyCellsandTissuesofBiologicalOrigin 4
1.2.7 GasandVaporSorption 4
1.3 TransductionMethods 4
1.3.1 GeneralAspects 4
1.3.2 ThermometricTransduction 5
1.3.3 TransductionBasedonMechanicalEffects 5
1.3.4 ResistiveandCapacitiveTransduction 5
1.3.5 ElectrochemicalTransduction 5
1.3.6 OpticalTransduction 6
1.4 SensorConfigurationandFabrication 6
1.5 SensorCalibration 7
1.6 SensorFiguresofMerit 8
1.6.1 ReliabilityoftheMeasurement 9
1.6.2 SelectivityandSpecificity 10
1.6.3 DetectionandQuantificationCapabilities 10
1.6.4 ResponseTime 11
1.7 SensorArrays 11
1.7.1 QuantitativeAnalysisbyCross-SensitiveSensorArrays 11
1.7.2 QualitativeAnalysisbyCross-SensitiveSensorArrays 12
1.7.3 ArtificialNeuralNetworkApplicationsintheArtificialNose/Tongue 13
1.7.4 Outlook 14
1.8 SensorsinFlowAnalysisSystems 14
1.9 ApplicationsofChemicalSensors 14
1.9.1 EnvironmentalApplicationsofChemicalSensors 15
1.9.2 HealthcareApplicationsofChemicalSensors 15
1.9.3 ApplicationofChemicalSensorsintheFoodIndustry,AgricultureandBiotechnology 16
1.9.4 ChemicalSensorsinDefenseApplications 16
1.10 LiteratureonChemicalSensorsandBiosensors 17
1.11 OrganizationoftheText 17
References 19
2 ProteinStructureandProperties 21
2.1 AminoAcids 21
2.2 ChemicalStructureofProteins 22
2.3 ConformationofProteinMacromolecules 22
2.4 NoncovalentChemicalBondsinProteinMolecules 24
2.5 RecognitionProcessesInvolvingProteins 25
2.6 Outlook 26
References 27
Contents ix
3 EnzymesandEnzymaticSensors 28
3.1 General 28
3.2 EnzymeNomenclatureandClassification 29
3.3 EnzymeComponentsandCofactors 30
3.4 SomeEnzymeswithRelevancetoBiosensors 32
3.4.1 Oxidases 32
3.4.2 Dehydrogenases 33
3.4.3 Hydrolases 34
3.4.4 Lyases 35
3.4.5 Outlook 35
3.5 TransductionMethodsinEnzymaticBiosensors 36
3.5.1 TransductionMethods 36
3.5.2 MultienzymeSensors 37
3.6 KineticsofEnzymeReactions 38
3.6.1 TheMichaelis–MentenMechanism 38
3.6.2 OtherMechanisms 40
3.6.3 ExpressingtheEnzymeActivity 41
3.6.4 pHEffectonEnzymeReactions 42
3.6.5 TemperatureEffectonEnzymeReactions 43
3.6.6 Outlook 43
3.7 EnzymeInhibition 44
3.7.1 ReversibleInhibition 44
3.7.2 IrreversibleInhibition 46
3.7.3 EnzymaticSensorsforInhibitors:DesignandOperation 46
3.7.4 ApplicationsofEnzyme-InhibitionSensors 46
3.8 ConcludingRemarks 48
References 48
4 MathematicalModelingofEnzymaticSensors 50
4.1 Introduction 50
4.2 TheEnzymaticSensorunderExternalDiffusionConditions 50
4.2.1 ThePhysicalModel 50
4.2.2 TheMathematicalModel 51
4.2.3 TheZero-OrderKineticsCase 52
4.2.4 TheFirst-OrderKineticsCase 52
4.2.5 TheDynamicRangeandtheLimitofDetectionunderExternalDiffusionConditions 54
4.3 TheEnzymaticSensorunderInternalDiffusionControl 55
4.3.1 TheSteady-StateResponse 55
4.3.2 TheTransientRegimeandtheResponseTimeunderInternalDiffusionConditions 58
4.4 TheGeneralCase 60
4.4.1 TheModel 60
4.4.2 EffectoftheBiotNumber 61
4.4.3 EffectofPartitionConstantsandDiffusionCoefficients 63
4.4.4 ExperimentalTestsfortheKineticRegimeofanEnzymaticSensor 63
4.5 Outlook 64
References 64
5 MaterialsandMethodsinChemical-SensorManufacturing 66
5.1 Introduction 66
5.2 NoncovalentImmobilizationatSolidSurfaces 66
5.3 CovalentConjugation 68
5.3.1 Zero-LengthCrosslinkers 68
5.3.2 BifunctionalCrosslinkers 69
5.3.3 ImmobilizationbyProteinCrosslinking 69
5.4 SupportsandSupportModification 70
5.4.1 GeneralAspects 70
5.4.2 NaturalPolymers 71
5.4.3 SyntheticPolymers 72
5.4.4 CouplingtoActivePolymers 72
5.4.5 CouplingtoInactivePolymers 72
x Contents
5.4.6 InorganicSupports 73
5.4.7 CarbonMaterialSupports 73
5.4.8 MetalSupports 75
5.4.9 SemiconductorSupports 76
5.5 AffinityReactions 77
5.6 ThinMolecularLayers 78
5.6.1 Self-AssemblyofAmphiphilicCompounds 78
5.6.2 BilayerLipidMembranes 79
5.6.3 AlternateLayer-by-LayerAssembly 80
5.7 Sol-GelChemistryMethods 81
5.8 Hydrogels 83
5.8.1 PhysicallyCrosslinkedHydrogels 84
5.8.2 ChemicallyCrosslinkedHydrogels 84
5.8.3 RedoxHydrogels 84
5.8.4 ResponsiveHydrogels 84
5.9 ConductingPolymers 86
5.10 Encapsulation 88
5.11 EntrapmentinMesoporousMaterials 89
5.12 PolymerMembranes 90
5.12.1 DepositionofPolymersontoSolidSurfaces 90
5.12.2 Perm-SelectiveMembranes 91
5.13 MicrofabricationMethodsinChemical-SensorTechnology 92
5.13.1 SpotArraying 92
5.13.2 Thick-FilmTechnology 92
5.13.3 Thin-FilmTechniques 94
5.13.4 SoftLithography 95
5.13.5 MicrocontactPrintingofBiocompounds 95
5.14 ConcludingRemarks 97
References 97
6 Affinity-BasedRecognition 101
6.1 GeneralPrinciples 101
6.2 Immunosensors 101
6.2.1 Antibodies:StructureandFunction 101
6.2.2 Antibody–AntigenAffinityandAvidity 103
6.2.3 AnalyticalApplications 103
6.2.4 Label-FreeTransductionMethodsinImmunosensors 104
6.2.5 Label-BasedTransductionMethodsinImmunosensors 104
6.2.6 EnzymeLabelsinImmunoassay 105
6.3 ImmobilizationMethodsinImmunosensors 106
6.4 ImmunoassayFormats 106
6.5 ProteinandPeptideMicroarrays 109
6.6 BiologicalReceptors 110
6.7 ArtificialReceptors 111
6.7.1 CyclodextrinsandHost–GuestChemistry 111
6.7.2 Calixarenes 113
6.7.3 MolecularlyImprintedPolymers(MIPs) 113
6.8 Outlook 115
References 115
7 NucleicAcidsinChemicalSensors 118
7.1 NucleicAcidStructureandProperties 118
7.2 NucleicAcidAnalogs 121
7.3 NucleicAcidsasReceptorsinRecognitionProcesses 122
7.3.1 Hybridization:PolynucleotideRecognition 122
7.3.2 RecognitionofNon-NucleotideCompounds 123
7.3.3 RecognitionbyNucleicAcidAptamers 124
7.4 ImmobilizationofNucleicAcids 126
7.4.1 Adsorption 126
7.4.2 ImmobilizationbySelf-Assembly 127
Contents xi
7.4.3 ImmobilizationbyPolymerization 127
7.4.4 CovalentImmobilizationonFunctionalizedSurfaces 128
7.4.5 CouplingbyAffinityReactions 128
7.4.6 Polynucleotides–NanoparticlesHybrids 129
7.5 TransductionMethodsinNucleicAcidsSensors 129
7.5.1 Label-FreeTransductionMethods 129
7.5.2 Label-BasedTransduction 129
7.5.3 DNAAmplification 130
7.6 DNAMicroarrays 131
7.7 Outlook 132
References 133
8 NanomaterialApplicationsinChemicalSensors 135
8.1 Generals 135
8.2 MetallicNanomaterials 136
8.2.1 SynthesisofMetalNanoparticles 136
8.2.2 FunctionalizationofGoldNanoparticles 137
8.2.3 ApplicationsofMetalNanoparticlesinChemicalSensors 138
8.3 CarbonNanomaterials 138
8.3.1 StructureofCNTs 139
8.3.2 SynthesisofCNTs 140
8.3.3 ChemicalReactivityandFunctionalization 140
8.3.4 CNTApplicationsinChemicalSensors 142
8.3.5 CarbonNanofibers(CNFs) 142
8.4 PolymerandInorganicNanofibers 144
8.5 MagneticMicro-andNanoparticles 145
8.5.1 MagnetismandMagneticMaterials 145
8.5.2 MagneticNanoparticles 146
8.5.3 MagneticBiosensorsandBiochips 146
8.5.4 MagneticNanoparticlesasAuxiliaryComponentsinBiosensors 148
8.5.5 Outlook 148
8.6 SemiconductorNanomaterials 149
8.6.1 SynthesisandFunctionalizationofQuantumDots 149
8.6.2 ApplicationsofQuantumDots 151
8.7 SilicaNanoparticles 151
8.7.1 Synthesis,Properties,andApplications 151
8.8 Dendrimers 152
8.8.1 PropertiesandApplications 152
8.9 Summary 153
References 153
9 ThermochemicalSensors 157
9.1 TemperatureTransducers 157
9.1.1 ResistiveTemperatureTransducers 157
9.1.2 Thermopiles 157
9.2 EnzymaticThermalSensors 158
9.2.1 PrinciplesofThermalTransductioninEnzymaticSensors 158
9.2.2 Thermistor-BasedEnzymaticSensors 159
9.2.3 Thermopile-BasedEnzymaticSensors 160
9.2.4 MultienzymeThermalSensors 160
9.2.5 Outlook 161
9.3 ThermocatalyticSensorsforCombustibleGases 162
9.3.1 StructureandFunctioningPrinciples 162
References 163
10 PotentiometricSensors 165
10.1 Introduction 165
10.2 TheGalvanicCellatEquilibrium 165
10.2.1 ThermodynamicsofElectrolyteSolutions 166
10.2.2 ThermodynamicsoftheGalvanicCell 167
xii Contents
10.3 IonDistributionattheInterfaceofTwoElectrolyteSolutions 170
10.3.1 ChargeDistributionattheJunctionofTwoElectrolyteSolutions.
TheDiffusionPotential 170
10.3.2 IonDistributionatanAqueous/SemipermeableMembraneInterface 172
10.4 PotentiometricIonSensors–General 173
10.4.1 SensorConfigurationandtheResponseFunction 173
10.4.2 SelectivityofPotentiometricIonSensors 175
10.4.3 TheResponseRangeofPotentiometricIonSensors 177
10.4.4 InterferencesbyChemicalReactionsOccurringintheSample 177
10.4.5 TheResponseTimeofPotentiometricIonSensors 178
10.4.6 Outlook 178
10.5 SparinglySolubleSolidSaltsasMembraneMaterials 178
10.5.1 MembraneComposition 178
10.5.2 ResponseFunctionandSelectivity 179
10.6 GlassMembraneIonSensors 181
10.6.1 MembraneStructureandProperties 181
10.6.2 ResponseFunctionandSelectivity 182
10.6.3 ChalcogenideGlassMembranes 183
10.7 IonSensorsBasedonMolecularReceptors.GeneralAspects 184
10.8 LiquidIonExchangersasIonReceptors 185
10.8.1 IonRecognitionbyLiquidIonExchangers 185
10.8.2 ChargedReceptorMembranes 185
10.8.3 ResponseFunctionandSelectivity 186
10.8.4 Outlook 187
10.9 NeutralIonReceptors(Ionophores) 187
10.9.1 GeneralPrinciples 187
10.9.2 ChemistryofIonRecognitionbyNeutralReceptors 188
10.9.3 EffectofBondingMultiplicity,Steric,andConformationalFactors 189
10.9.4 NeutralReceptorIon-SelectiveMembranes:Composition,Selectivityand
ResponseFunction 190
10.9.5 NeutralNoncyclicIonReceptors 192
10.9.6 MacrocyclicCationReceptors 193
10.9.7 MacrocyclicAnionReceptors 194
10.9.8 NeutralReceptorsforOrganicIons 194
10.9.9 PorphyrinsandPhthalocyaninesasAnionReceptors 195
10.9.10 Outlook 196
10.10 MolecularlyImprintedPolymersasIon-SensingMaterials 197
10.11 ConductingPolymersasIon-SensingMaterials 198
10.12 SolidContactPotentiometricIonSensors 198
10.13 MiniaturizationofPotentiometricIonSensors 199
10.14 AnalysiswithPotentiometricIonSensors 200
10.15 RecentAdvancesinPotentiometricIonSensors 201
10.16 PotentiometricGasSensors 203
10.17 SolidElectrolytePotentiometricGasSensors 204
10.17.1 GeneralPrinciples 204
10.17.2 SolidElectrolytePotentiometricOxygenSensors 205
10.17.3 ApplicationsofPotentiometricOxygenSensors 206
10.17.4 TypesofSolidElectrolytePotentiometricGasSensors 207
10.17.5 MixedPotentialPotentiometricGasSensors 208
10.17.6 Outlook 209
10.18 PotentiometricBiocatalyticSensors 210
10.19 PotentiometricAffinitySensors 211
10.20 Summary 212
References 213
11 ChemicalSensorsBasedonSemiconductorElectronicDevices 217
11.1 ElectronicSemiconductorDevices 217
11.1.1 SemiconductorMaterials 217
11.1.2 BandTheoryofSemiconductors 218
11.1.3 Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor(MIS)Capacitors 219