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Chariots for Apollo Courtney Brooks, James Grimwood, and Loyd Swenson Chariots for Apollo Table of Contents Chariots for Apollo...................................................................................................................................................1 Courtney Brooks, James Grimwood, and Loyd Swenson.............................................................................1 Foreword....................................................................................................................................................................7 Chariots For Apollo, Preface.........................................................................................................................7 Preface........................................................................................................................................................................8 Chariots For Apollo, ch1−1. Concept to Challenge. 1957 to Mid−1961.....................................................10 Chariots For Apollo, ch1−2. Forging a National Space Agency.................................................................11 Chariots For Apollo, ch1−3. The Starting....................................................................................................15 Chariots For Apollo, ch1−4. The Goett Committee.....................................................................................18 Chariots For Apollo, ch1−5. Focusing the Aim...........................................................................................22 Chariots For Apollo, ch1−6. Priming the Pipeline.......................................................................................24 Chariots For Apollo, ch1−7. The Feasibility Studies...................................................................................28 Chariots For Apollo, ch1−8. Portents for Apollo.........................................................................................32 Chariots For Apollo, ch1−9. The Challenge................................................................................................41 Chariots For Apollo, ch2−1. Project Planning and Contracting..................................................................43 May through December 1961....................................................................................................................................43 Chariots For Apollo, ch2−2. Committees at Work......................................................................................43 Chariots For Apollo, ch2−3. Spacecraft Development Decision.................................................................44 Chariots For Apollo, ch2−4. Astronavigation(cid:20)The First Apollo Contract..................................................48 Chariots For Apollo, ch2−5. Contracting for the Command Module..........................................................52 SEB Ratings of Apollo Spacecraft Proposals by Major Area...................................................................................53 Chariots For Apollo, ch2−6. Influences on Booster Determination............................................................55 Apollo Launch Vehicles............................................................................................................................................56 Saturn C−1 (renamed Saturn I).*.................................................................................................................56 Saturn C−1B (renamed Saturn IB).*............................................................................................................56 Saturn C−2...................................................................................................................................................57 Saturn C−3...................................................................................................................................................57 Saturn C−4...................................................................................................................................................57 Saturn C−5 (renamed Saturn V).*................................................................................................................57 Saturn C−8...................................................................................................................................................57 Nova.............................................................................................................................................................57 Chariots For Apollo, ch2−7. Help from the Department of Defense...........................................................58 Chariots For Apollo, ch2−8. Choice of Facilities........................................................................................61 Chariots For Apollo, ch2−9. The Launch Vehicle: Question and Decision................................................67 Chariots For Apollo, ch3−1. Contending Modes.........................................................................................73 1959 to Mid−1962.....................................................................................................................................................73 Chariots For Apollo, ch3−2. Proposals: Before and after May 1961..........................................................74 Chariots For Apollo, ch3−3.........................................................................................................................80 LOR Gains a NASA Adherent...............................................................................................................................81 Chariots For Apollo, ch3−4.........................................................................................................................84 Early Reaction to LOR...........................................................................................................................................85 Chariots For Apollo, ch3−5.........................................................................................................................87 i Chariots for Apollo Table of Contents Analysis of LOR......................................................................................................................................................88 Chariots For Apollo, ch3−6.........................................................................................................................93 Settling the Mode Issue...........................................................................................................................................94 Chariots For Apollo, ch3−7. Casting the Die...............................................................................................99 Chariots For Apollo, ch4−1. Matching Modules and Missions.................................................................104 1962.........................................................................................................................................................................104 Chariots For Apollo, ch4−2. The Team and the Tools..............................................................................105 Chariots For Apollo, ch4−3. Preliminary Designs for the Lunar Lander..................................................124 Chariots For Apollo, ch4−4. Pressures by PSAC......................................................................................126 Chariots For Apollo, ch4−5. Fitting the Lunar Module into Apollo..........................................................132 Chariots For Apollo, ch4−6. NASA Adjustments for Apollo....................................................................135 Chariots For Apollo, ch4−7. NASA−Grumman Negotiations...................................................................136 Chariots For Apollo, ch4−8. End of a Phase..............................................................................................140 Chariots For Apollo, ch5−1. Command Modules and Program Changes.................................................142 1963¡964 ..............................................................................................................................................................142 Chariots For Apollo, ch5−2. The Headquarters Role................................................................................144 Chariots For Apollo, ch5−3. Command Module: Problems and Progress.................................................158 Chariots For Apollo, ch5−3. Command Module: Problems and Progress.................................................167 Chariots For Apollo, ch6−10. The Lunar Module and the Apollo Program..............................................184 Chariots For Apollo, ch6−1. Lunar Module..............................................................................................188 1963−1964...............................................................................................................................................................189 Chariots For Apollo, ch6−2. External Design............................................................................................190 Chariots For Apollo, ch6−3. Tailoring the Cockpit...................................................................................197 Chariots For Apollo, ch6−4. Hatches and Landing Gear...........................................................................202 Chariots For Apollo, ch6−5. Engines, Large and Small............................................................................208 Chariots For Apollo, ch6−6. Environment and Electricity........................................................................212 Chariots For Apollo, ch6−7. The “Sub−Prime” and the Radar Problem...................................................214 Chariots For Apollo, ch6−8. Guidance and Navigation.............................................................................216 Chariots For Apollo, ch6−9. Mockup Reviews.........................................................................................218 Chariots For Apollo, ch7−1. Searching for Order.....................................................................................220 1965.........................................................................................................................................................................221 Chariots For Apollo, ch7−2. Program Direction and the Command Module............................................222 Chariots For Apollo, ch7−3. Lunar Module Refinement...........................................................................227 Chariots For Apollo, ch7−4. The LEM Test Program: A Pacing Item......................................................231 Chariots For Apollo, ch7−5. The Manned Factor......................................................................................234 Chariots For Apollo, ch7−6. Portents for Operations................................................................................237 Chariots For Apollo, ch7−7. The Course and the Future...........................................................................249 Chariots For Apollo, ch8−1. Moving toward Operations..........................................................................250 1966.........................................................................................................................................................................251 Chariots For Apollo, ch8−2. Qualifying Missions.....................................................................................253 Chariots For Apollo, ch8−3. Troubles and Troubleshooters.....................................................................257 Chariots For Apollo, ch8−4. Lunar Module..............................................................................................262 Chariots For Apollo, ch8−5. Plans and Progress in Space Flight..............................................................266 Major Considerations in the Design of the First Lunar Landing Mission..............................................................269 Chariots For Apollo, ch8−6. The Astronauts and the Gemini Experience................................................271 Chariots For Apollo, ch8−7. Preparations for the First Manned Apollo Mission.....................................273 Chariots For Apollo, ch9−1. Tragedy and Recovery.................................................................................279 ii Chariots for Apollo Table of Contents Settling the Mode Issue 1967.........................................................................................................................................................................280 Chariots For Apollo, ch9−2. Stalked by the Spectre..................................................................................281 Chariots For Apollo, ch9−3. The Investigation.........................................................................................285 Chariots For Apollo, ch9−4. The Slow Recovery......................................................................................297 Chariots For Apollo, ch9−5. Apollo 4 and Saturn V.................................................................................302 Basic Missions........................................................................................................................................................305 Chariots For Apollo, ch10−1. Race with the Decade................................................................................306 1968: First Half.......................................................................................................................................................307 Chariots For Apollo, ch10−2. Worries and Watchdogs.............................................................................308 Chariots For Apollo, ch10−3. Apollo 5: The Lunar Module's Debut........................................................312 Chariots For Apollo, ch10−4. The LM: Some Questions, Some Answers................................................317 Chariots For Apollo, ch10−5. Apollo 6: Saturn V's Shaky Dress Rehearsal.............................................320 Chariots For Apollo, ch10−6. Pogo and Other Problems..........................................................................325 Chariots For Apollo, ch10−7. The Outlook...............................................................................................328 Chariots For Apollo, ch11−1. Tastes of Triumph......................................................................................329 1968: Second Half...................................................................................................................................................330 Chariots For Apollo, ch11−2. Proposal for a Lunar Orbit Mission...........................................................332 Chariots For Apollo, ch11−3. Selecting and Training Crews....................................................................335 Chariots For Apollo, ch11−4. Apollo 7: The Magnificent Flying Machine..............................................341 Chariots For Apollo, ch11−5. The Apollo 8 Decision...............................................................................350 Chariots For Apollo, ch11−6. Apollo 8: The First Lunar Voyage.............................................................353 Chariots For Apollo, ch12−1. The Trailblazers.........................................................................................365 1969: First Half.......................................................................................................................................................366 Chariots For Apollo, ch12−2. Schedules and Lingering Worries..............................................................367 Chariots For Apollo, ch12−3. A Double Workload...................................................................................370 Chariots For Apollo, ch12−4. The Mission and the Men..........................................................................372 Chariots For Apollo, ch12−5. Apollo 9: Earth Orbital trials.....................................................................375 Chariots For Apollo, ch12−6. Setting the Stage........................................................................................384 Chariots For Apollo, ch12−7. Apollo 10: The Dress Rehearsal................................................................387 Chariots For Apollo, ch13−1. To Land on the Moon................................................................................400 1960−July 1969.......................................................................................................................................................401 Chariots For Apollo, ch13−2. Some Special Considerations.....................................................................402 Chariots For Apollo, ch13−3. Training Mankind's Representatives..........................................................406 Chariots For Apollo, ch13−4. Affairs for the Public.................................................................................418 Chariots For Apollo, ch13−5. Down to the Wire.......................................................................................424 Chariots For Apollo, ch14−1. Trip to Tranquility.....................................................................................428 1969: July................................................................................................................................................................429 Chariots For Apollo, ch14−2. The Outward Voyage.................................................................................430 Chariots For Apollo, ch14−3. In Lunar Orbit............................................................................................434 Chariots For Apollo, ch14−4. The First Landing.......................................................................................436 Chariots For Apollo, ch14−5.....................................................................................................................438 On the Surface.......................................................................................................................................................439 Chariots For Apollo, ch14−6. Return from Tranquility.............................................................................448 Apollo 11 Mission Events Sequence.......................................................................................................................456 Range zero—13:32:00 GMT, 16 July 1969...............................................................................................457 Apollo 11 Recovery Sequence................................................................................................................................458 iii Chariots for Apollo Table of Contents On the Surface Chariots For Apollo, Epilogue...................................................................................................................460 Epilogue..................................................................................................................................................................461 Appendix A. Manned Spacecraft Center...................................................................................................467 Site Selection Procedure............................................................................................................................468 Essential Criteria........................................................................................................................................469 Desirable Criteria.......................................................................................................................................470 Chariots for Apollo, Appendix B. Appendix B.........................................................................................472 Astronaut Assignments...........................................................................................................................................473 1. Apollo Astronaut Assignments As Announced In 1966 And 1967.......................................................474 2. Apollo Astronaut Assignments As Flown.............................................................................................475 3. Astronaut Mission Assignments By Group...........................................................................................476 4. Capsule Communicator Assignments By Flight....................................................................................480 Chariots for Apollo, Appendix C. Appendix C.........................................................................................483 Apollo Flight Program............................................................................................................................................484 1. Saturn−Apollo Flights (Saturn I)...........................................................................................................485 2. Pad Abort Tests......................................................................................................................................489 3. Little Joe II Tests....................................................................................................................................490 4. Unmanned Apollo−Saturn Flights (Saturn IB And Saturn V)...............................................................492 5. Manned Apollo−Saturn Flights (Saturn IB And Saturn V)...................................................................496 Chariots for Apollo, Appendix D. Appendix D.........................................................................................499 Apollo 11 Experiments...........................................................................................................................................500 Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP)...........................................................................501 Apollo Lunar Radioisotopic Heater (ALRH).............................................................................................502 Chariots for Apollo, Appendix E. Appendix E..........................................................................................503 Apollo 11 Lunar Samples........................................................................................................................................504 Chariots for Apollo, Appendix F...............................................................................................................506 Appendix F.............................................................................................................................................................507 .M....a..j.o..r. .S..p..a..c..e..c.r..a..f.t. .C...o..m...p..o..n..e..n..t. .M...a..n..u..f.a..c..t.u..r.e..r.s.........................................................................................................................................................................................550089 Chariots for Apollo, Appendix G. Appendix G..................................................................................511 Apollo Program Responsibilities of the Manned Space Centers...............................................................512 MANNED SPACECRAFT CENTER.................................................................................................513 GEORGE C. MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER....................................................................515 JOHN F. KENNEDY SPACE CENTER............................................................................................517 Chariots for Apollo, Appendix H. Appendix H..................................................................................520 Funding—As of 30 June 1969...................................................................................................................521 iv Chariots for Apollo Courtney Brooks, James Grimwood, and Loyd Swenson This page copyright © 2002 Blackmask Online. http://www.blackmask.com Foreword • Chariots For Apollo, Preface Preface • Chariots For Apollo, ch1−1. Concept to Challenge. 1957 to Mid−1961 • Chariots For Apollo, ch1−2. Forging a National Space Agency • Chariots For Apollo, ch1−3. The Starting • Chariots For Apollo, ch1−4. The Goett Committee • Chariots For Apollo, ch1−5. Focusing the Aim • Chariots For Apollo, ch1−6. Priming the Pipeline • Chariots For Apollo, ch1−7. The Feasibility Studies • Chariots For Apollo, ch1−8. Portents for Apollo • Chariots For Apollo, ch1−9. The Challenge • Chariots For Apollo, ch2−1. Project Planning and Contracting • May through December 1961 • Chariots For Apollo, ch2−2. Committees at Work • Chariots For Apollo, ch2−3. Spacecraft Development Decision • Chariots For Apollo, ch2−4. Astronavigation(cid:20)The First Apollo Contract • Chariots For Apollo, ch2−5. Contracting for the Command Module • SEB Ratings of Apollo Spacecraft Proposals by Major Area • Chariots For Apollo, ch2−6. Influences on Booster Determination • Apollo Launch Vehicles • Saturn C−1 (renamed Saturn I).* • Saturn C−1B (renamed Saturn IB).* • Saturn C−2. • Saturn C−3. • Saturn C−4. • Saturn C−5 (renamed Saturn V).* • Saturn C−8. • Nova. • Chariots For Apollo, ch2−7. Help from the Department of Defense • Chariots For Apollo, ch2−8. Choice of Facilities • Chariots For Apollo, ch2−9. The Launch Vehicle: Question and Decision • Chariots For Apollo, ch3−1. Contending Modes Chariots for Apollo 1 Chariots for Apollo • 1959 to Mid−1962 • Chariots For Apollo, ch3−2. Proposals: Before and after May 1961 • Chariots For Apollo, ch3−3 LOR Gains a NASA Adherent • Chariots For Apollo, ch3−4 Early Reaction to LOR • Chariots For Apollo, ch3−5 Analysis of LOR • Chariots For Apollo, ch3−6 Settling the Mode Issue • Chariots For Apollo, ch3−7. Casting the Die • Chariots For Apollo, ch4−1. Matching Modules and Missions • 1962 • Chariots For Apollo, ch4−2. The Team and the Tools • Chariots For Apollo, ch4−3. Preliminary Designs for the Lunar Lander • Chariots For Apollo, ch4−4. Pressures by PSAC • Chariots For Apollo, ch4−5. Fitting the Lunar Module into Apollo • Chariots For Apollo, ch4−6. NASA Adjustments for Apollo • Chariots For Apollo, ch4−7. NASA−Grumman Negotiations • Chariots For Apollo, ch4−8. End of a Phase • Chariots For Apollo, ch5−1. Command Modules and Program Changes • 1963¡964 • Chariots For Apollo, ch5−2. The Headquarters Role • Chariots For Apollo, ch5−3. Command Module: Problems and Progress • Chariots For Apollo, ch6−10. The Lunar Module and the Apollo Program • Chariots For Apollo, ch6−1. Lunar Module • 1963−1964 • Chariots For Apollo, ch6−2. External Design • Chariots For Apollo, ch6−3. Tailoring the Cockpit • Chariots For Apollo, ch6−4. Hatches and Landing Gear • Chariots For Apollo, ch6−5. Engines, Large and Small • Chariots For Apollo, ch6−6. Environment and Electricity • Chariots For Apollo, ch6−7. The (cid:28)Sub−Prime(cid:29) and the Radar Problem • Chariots For Apollo, ch6−8. Guidance and Navigation • Chariots For Apollo, ch6−9. Mockup Reviews • Chariots For Apollo, ch7−1. Searching for Order Chariots for Apollo 2 Chariots for Apollo • 1965 • Chariots For Apollo, ch7−2. Program Direction and the Command Module • Chariots For Apollo, ch7−3. Lunar Module Refinement • Chariots For Apollo, ch7−4. The LEM Test Program: A Pacing Item • Chariots For Apollo, ch7−5. The Manned Factor • Chariots For Apollo, ch7−6. Portents for Operations • Chariots For Apollo, ch7−7. The Course and the Future • Chariots For Apollo, ch8−1. Moving toward Operations • 1966 • Chariots For Apollo, ch8−2. Qualifying Missions • Chariots For Apollo, ch8−3. Troubles and Troubleshooters • Chariots For Apollo, ch8−4. Lunar Module • Chariots For Apollo, ch8−5. Plans and Progress in Space Flight • Major Considerations in the Design of the First Lunar Landing Mission • Chariots For Apollo, ch8−6. The Astronauts and the Gemini Experience • Chariots For Apollo, ch8−7. Preparations for the First Manned Apollo Mission • Chariots For Apollo, ch9−1. Tragedy and Recovery • 1967 • Chariots For Apollo, ch9−2. Stalked by the Spectre • Chariots For Apollo, ch9−3. The Investigation • Chariots For Apollo, ch9−4. The Slow Recovery • Chariots For Apollo, ch9−5. Apollo 4 and Saturn V • Basic Missions • Chariots For Apollo, ch10−1. Race with the Decade • 1968: First Half • Chariots For Apollo, ch10−2. Worries and Watchdogs • Chariots For Apollo, ch10−3. Apollo 5: The Lunar Module's Debut • Chariots For Apollo, ch10−4. The LM: Some Questions, Some Answers • Chariots For Apollo, ch10−5. Apollo 6: Saturn V's Shaky Dress Rehearsal • Chariots For Apollo, ch10−6. Pogo and Other Problems • Chariots For Apollo, ch10−7. The Outlook • Chariots For Apollo, ch11−1. Tastes of Triumph • 1968: Second Half • Chariots For Apollo, ch11−2. Proposal for a Lunar Orbit Mission • Chariots For Apollo, ch11−3. Selecting and Training Crews • Chariots For Apollo, ch11−4. Apollo 7: The Magnificent Flying Machine • Chariots For Apollo, ch11−5. The Apollo 8 Decision • Chariots For Apollo, ch11−6. Apollo 8: The First Lunar Voyage Chariots for Apollo 3 Chariots for Apollo • Chariots For Apollo, ch12−1. The Trailblazers • 1969: First Half • Chariots For Apollo, ch12−2. Schedules and Lingering Worries • Chariots For Apollo, ch12−3. A Double Workload • Chariots For Apollo, ch12−4. The Mission and the Men • Chariots For Apollo, ch12−5. Apollo 9: Earth Orbital trials • Chariots For Apollo, ch12−6. Setting the Stage • Chariots For Apollo, ch12−7. Apollo 10: The Dress Rehearsal • Chariots For Apollo, ch13−1. To Land on the Moon • 1960−July 1969 • Chariots For Apollo, ch13−2. Some Special Considerations • Chariots For Apollo, ch13−3. Training Mankind's Representatives • Chariots For Apollo, ch13−4. Affairs for the Public • Chariots For Apollo, ch13−5. Down to the Wire • Chariots For Apollo, ch14−1. Trip to Tranquility • 1969: July • Chariots For Apollo, ch14−2. The Outward Voyage • Chariots For Apollo, ch14−3. In Lunar Orbit • Chariots For Apollo, ch14−4. The First Landing • Chariots For Apollo, ch14−5 On the Surface • Chariots For Apollo, ch14−6. Return from Tranquility • Apollo 11 Mission Events Sequence • Range zero¡3:32:00 GMT, 16 July 1969 • Apollo 11 Recovery Sequence • Chariots For Apollo, Epilogue Epilogue • Appendix A. Manned Spacecraft Center • Site Selection Procedure • Essential Criteria • Desirable Criteria • Chariots for Apollo, Appendix B. Appendix B • Astronaut Assignments • 1. Apollo Astronaut Assignments As Announced In 1966 And 1967 • 2. Apollo Astronaut Assignments As Flown Chariots for Apollo 4 Chariots for Apollo • 3. Astronaut Mission Assignments By Group • 4. Capsule Communicator Assignments By Flight • Chariots for Apollo, Appendix C. Appendix C • Apollo Flight Program • 1. Saturn−Apollo Flights (Saturn I) • 2. Pad Abort Tests • 3. Little Joe II Tests • 4. Unmanned Apollo−Saturn Flights (Saturn IB And Saturn V) • 5. Manned Apollo−Saturn Flights (Saturn IB And Saturn V) • Chariots for Apollo, Appendix D. Appendix D • Apollo 11 Experiments • Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP) • Apollo Lunar Radioisotopic Heater (ALRH) • Chariots for Apollo, Appendix E. Appendix E • Apollo 11 Lunar Samples • Chariots for Apollo, Appendix F Appendix F • Major Spacecraft Component Manufacturers • ¤ Chariots for Apollo, Appendix G. Appendix G • Apollo Program Responsibilities of the Manned Space Centers ¤ Chariots for Apollo, Appendix H. Appendix H • Funding(cid:20)As of 30 June 1969 National Aeronautics and Space Administration Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft By Courtney G Brooks, James M. Grimwood, Loyd S. Swenson Published as NASA Special Publication−4205 in the NASA History Series, 1979. For Additional Information Contact Roger D. Launius, NASA Chief Historian, [email protected] Acknowledgment: Special thanks to David Woods for scanning and proofreading Chariots for Apollo, and Courtney Brooks, James Grimwood, and Loyd Swenson 5
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