Carbon Science and Technology: From Energy to Materials

214 Pages·2012·5.656 MB·English

by  Pierre Delhaes(auth.)

Carbon Science and Technology
Toallthosewhoaredeartome.Formygrandchildren,
maytheyliveonahospitableplanet.
Carbon Science
and Technology
From Energy to Materials
Pierre Delhaes
Firstpublished2012inGreatBritainandtheUnitedStatesbyISTELtdandJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.
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Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
ChemicalGlossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Chapter1.FromtheChemicalElementtoSolids. . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.CarbononEarth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.Abriefhistoryofthechemistryofcarbon . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1.Thefirstdiscoveries:fire,heatandmetals. . . . . . . . 9
1.2.2.Exploitationofminedresources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.3.Usesofdispersedcarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.Presentationofcarbonsolids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.1.Comparisonofnaturalandartificialevolution . . . . . 16
1.3.2.Productionanddevelopmentofcarbonaceous
products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.Conclusionandperspectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Chapter2.ThePolymorphismofCarbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.Thecarbonatomanditschemicalbonds . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.1.Chemicalbondsandsolidphases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.2.Carbonisotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.Athermodynamicapproach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.1.Someremindersaboutphenomenonological
thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
vi CarbonScienceandTechnology
2.2.2.Diagramofequilibriumstatesofcarbon. . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.Newmolecularphases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.Non-crystallinecarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.1.Principalprocesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4.2.Evolutionandstructuralcharacterizations . . . . . . . 35
2.4.3.Homogeneousmassivecarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4.4.Porousanddispersedcarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.5.Fromsolidstomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Chapter3.NaturalCarbons:EnergySourceand
Carbochemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1.Primaryenergysources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.1.1.Thevariousformsofenergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.1.2.Combustionofnaturalcoals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1.3.Manufacturingcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1.4.Gasificationandliquefactionprocedures . . . . . . . . 57
3.2.Carbochemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2.1.Intermediaryproducts:coaltarandpitch . . . . . . . . 60
3.2.2.Solidprimarymaterials:cokesandartificial
graphites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3.Useofcoalresources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3.1.Primaryenergysource. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3.2.Thefutureofcarbochemistryandcarbonaceous
materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.4.Summationandessentialpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.5.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Chapter4.TheRoleofCarboninMetallurgy . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1.Principlesandevolutionofthesteelindustry . . . . . . . . 72
4.1.1.Industrialmanufacturingforcastironandsteel . . . . 75
4.1.2.Carbonsinthesteelindustry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.2.Themanufacturingofaluminum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2.1.Electrolysistank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2.2.Carbonsforthealuminumindustry. . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.Siliconproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.1.Obtainingmetallurgicalsilicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
TableofContents vii
4.3.2.Carbonelectrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.4.Metalliccarbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.4.1.Synthesisofacetylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.4.2.Refractorycarbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.5.Summaryandessentialpoints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.6.Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Chapter5.BlackandWhiteCeramics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.1.Graphitesandisotropiccarbons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.1.1.Manufacturingartificialgraphites . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.1.2.Generalphysicalproperties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.1.3.Glassycarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.1.4.Majorareasofapplication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.2.Pyrocarbonsandpyrographites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.2.1.Pyrocarbons(Pyc)obtainedviavapor-phase
chemicaldeposit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.2.2.Texturalandphysicalcharacteristics . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.2.3.Pyrographitesandanalogs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.3.Filmsofdiamond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.3.1.Thinlayerprocesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.3.2.Propertiesandfieldsofapplication . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.4.Summaryandessentialpoints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.5.Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Chapter6.DispersedandPorousCarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.1.Carbonblacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.1.1.Formationmechanismsandindustrialprocesses. . . . 108
6.1.2.Classificationandcharacteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.1.3.Othercarbonparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.2.Shapingandfieldsofapplication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.2.1.Reminderonheterogeneousmedia . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.2.2.Maindomainsofexploitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.3.Porousandadsorbentcarbons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.3.1.Generaldefinitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.3.2.Activatedcarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.3.3.Purificationandtransportinthegaseousphase. . . . . 125
6.3.4.Usesintheliquidphase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
viii CarbonScienceandTechnology
6.4.Summaryandessentialpoints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.5.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Chapter7.FibersandComposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.1.Carbonfilaments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.1.1.Historicoverviewofthemainfamilies . . . . . . . . . 132
7.1.2.Texturalcharacteristicsandphysicalproperties. . . . 136
7.2.Compositematerials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.2.1.Fiber-matrixinterface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.2.2.Maincategoriesofcompositesand
nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.2.3.Manufactureofcarbon-carboncomposites . . . . . . . 145
7.2.4.Applicationsofcarbon-carboncomposites . . . . . . . 148
7.3.Summaryandessentialpoints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.4.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Chapter8.MolecularCarbonsandNanocarbons . . . . . . . . 155
8.1.Synthesisandproduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.1.1.Synthesisandcharacterizationoffullerenes . . . . . . 156
8.1.2.Formationandidentificationofnanotubes . . . . . . . 157
8.1.3.Manufactureandstabilizationofgraphene
ribbons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.2.Transportandnanoelectronicproperties . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.2.1.Electronictransportinsingle-wallnanotubes
andgrapheneribbons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.2.2.Moleculartransistorsandlogiccircuits . . . . . . . . . 166
8.2.3.Associatedquantumphenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
8.3.Physicalchemistryofinterfaceandsensors. . . . . . . . . 169
8.3.1.Chemicalfunctionalizationofsurfaces . . . . . . . . . 170
8.3.2.Sensors,biosensorsandactuators. . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.3.3.Commentsonbiologicalcompatibility. . . . . . . . . . 175
8.4.Conclusionandprospective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
8.5.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Chapter9.CarbonTechniquesandInnovation . . . . . . . . . 179
9.1.Evolutionofcarbonmaterials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.1.1.Differentgenerationsofcarbonaceousmaterials . . . 180
TableofContents ix
9.1.2.Classificationbypurposeandareasofactivity. . . . . 182
9.1.3.Roleinenergyproblems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
9.2.Socio-economicaspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
9.2.1.Economicassessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
9.2.2.Economictransitionsandcycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
9.3.Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.4.Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Introduction
The key role of the carbon atom on Earth, where it occupies a
singular place, has been described by P. Levi [LEV 84]. It can form
several types of chemical bonds with other atoms, but it can also self-
combine in order to create a carbon skeleton; characteristics which
form the basis of organic chemistry, biochemistry, and life itself. This
ability to bond in various waysalso gives great flexibility and fullness
to solids formed solely of carbon, both natural and artificial. Carbon
solids have been utilized by man since prehistoric times, first as a
source of heat and then for other purposes; these are used as markers
for different civilizations. This is what we will show, referring to
scientific and technological history and, firstly, reminding the reader
ofsomegeneraldefinitions.
Science, in the current sense of the term, is part of the
representation of a body of knowledge that seeks to answer the
question: why? The corresponding material technology tends to
answer the question: how is it done? This combination, also called
discovery and invention, is the keystone: a scientific discovery is the
determination gleaned from an experimental phenomenon or concept,
while an invention is the action of creating a machine, a new device,
or a new manufacturing procedure. The former is a cognitive science,
while the latter, referred to as productivist, includes applications and
innovationssincenewthingsandactivitiesarecreated.