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Carbon-neutral architectural design PDF

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second edition carbon-neutral architectural design Pablo La Roche Carbon-Neutral Architectural Design Carbon-Neutral Architectural Design Second Edition by Pablo La Roche CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-1429-7 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, micro- filming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www. copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750- 8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identi- fication and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Names: La Roche, Pablo, 1961- author. Title: Carbon-neutral architectural design / Pablo M. La Roche. Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016059398| ISBN 9781498714297 (978-1-315-16709-1) | ISBN 9781351681957 | ISBN 9781351681940 | ISBN 9781351681933 Subjects: LCSH: Sustainable architecture. | Architectural design. | Carbon dioxide mitigation. Classification: LCC NA2542.36 .L3 2017 | DDC 720/.472--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016059398 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Foreword ...........................................................................................................................................xi Preface............................................................................................................................................xiii Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................xv Author ............................................................................................................................................xvii Introduction .....................................................................................................................................xix Chapter 1 Buildings and Climate Change ....................................................................................1 1.1 The Greenhouse Effect ......................................................................................1 1.2 Effects of Anthropogenic Emissions on Climate Change .................................2 1.3 Effects of Climate Change .................................................................................8 1.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Buildings ....................................................10 1.4.1 Operation Emissions (O) ...................................................................13 e 1.4.1.1 Net Zero Energy Buildings .................................................14 1.4.1.2 Classification of Greenhouse Gases in Terms of Scopes ........16 1.4.2 Construction Emissions (C) ..............................................................17 e 1.4.3 Emissions from Water (W) ................................................................17 e 1.4.4 Emissions from Waste (W) ................................................................17 a 1.5 Carbon-Neutral Architectural Design ..............................................................17 1.6 Commitments to Reduce Carbon Emissions ...................................................20 1.7 Carbon-Counting Tools ...................................................................................22 1.8 Comparison of Carbon-Counting Tools...........................................................23 1.8.1 Selection of Carbon-Counting Tools ..................................................23 1.8.2 Comparing Emissions from Natural Gas and Electricity ...................23 1.8.3 Recommended Carbon-Counting Tools .............................................25 1.9 Adaptation, Mitigation, and Resilience ...........................................................26 Chapter 2 Carbon-Neutral Architectural Design .........................................................................31 2.1 Architectural Design Process ..........................................................................31 2.1.1 Traditional Architectural Design Process ...........................................31 2.1.2 Computer-Aided Architectural Design Process .................................31 2.2 Carbon-Neutral Architectural Design Process .................................................32 2.3 Urban and Neighborhood Scale .......................................................................36 2.4 Building Scale .................................................................................................37 2.4.1 Operation and Energy .........................................................................37 2.4.2 Construction .......................................................................................38 2.4.3 Water ..................................................................................................39 2.4.4 Waste ..................................................................................................39 Chapter 3 Carbon-Neutral Architectural Design in Academia....................................................41 3.1 Carbon-Neutral Architectural Design Process in Beginning-Year Studios .....41 3.2 Carbon-Neutral Architectural Design Process in Advanced Studios ...............50 3.3 Design and Practice: The Pamo Valley Project ................................................99 3.4 Design and Research: The Greenkit ..............................................................110 v vi Contents 3.5 Design and Social Responsibility: Shelter Work in Mexico..........................118 3.5.1 Tijuana Affordable Housing Project .................................................118 3.5.1.1 Flexibility and Growth ......................................................121 3.5.1.2 Site, Landscaping, and Green Roof ..................................123 3.5.1.3 Local Materials and Papercrete Walls ...............................124 3.5.1.4 Adapting to Local Topography .........................................126 3.5.1.5 Passive Heating and Cooling ............................................127 3.5.2 Cerro Azul Community Center ........................................................129 Chapter 4 Carbon-Neutral Architectural Design in Practice .....................................................141 4.1 Social Sustainability: Nueva Democracia .....................................................141 4.1.1 Urbanization in Venezuela ................................................................141 4.1.1.1 Urban Development with Community Participation: Nueva Democracia ............................................................141 4.1.1.2 Urban Design ....................................................................142 4.1.1.3 The Condominium ............................................................142 4.1.1.4 The Dwellings ...................................................................144 4.2 Carbon Neutrality: Tenerife ...........................................................................148 4.2.1 The Project .......................................................................................148 4.3 Exploring New Directions .............................................................................156 4.3.1 Inclusion ...........................................................................................156 4.3.2 Self-Sufficiency ................................................................................158 4.3.3 Infrastructure ....................................................................................158 Chapter 5 Thermal Comfort ......................................................................................................167 5.1 Psychrometrics ..............................................................................................167 5.2 Thermal Comfort ...........................................................................................173 5.2.1 Heat Balance.....................................................................................173 5.2.2 Variables That Affect Thermal Comfort ...........................................175 5.3 Environmental and Comfort Indices ..............................................................178 5.4 Comfort Models .............................................................................................179 5.4.1 Physiological Comfort Model ..........................................................179 5.4.2 Adaptive Comfort Model .................................................................180 5.5 The Perception of Comfort ............................................................................184 5.6 Designing for Comfort ..................................................................................185 5.6.1 Improving Outdoor Thermal Comfort in a Hot and Dry Climate ....185 5.6.2 Improving Outdoor Thermal Comfort in a Hot and Humid Climate ....187 Chapter 6 Climate and Architecture ..........................................................................................193 6.1 Climate ..........................................................................................................193 6.2 Climate and Architecture ...............................................................................193 6.3 Climate Zones ................................................................................................196 6.4 Climate Zones and Energy Codes .................................................................198 6.5 Climate Analysis ............................................................................................201 6.5.1 Building Bioclimatic Chart ..............................................................201 6.5.2 Givoni’s Building Bioclimatic Chart ................................................202 6.5.3 Digital Climate Analysis Tools .........................................................206 6.5.4 The Comfort Triangles Chart ...........................................................207 Contents vii 6.6 Vernacular Architecture .................................................................................209 6.6.1 Vernacular Architecture in Warm, Humid Climates .........................209 6.6.2 Vernacular Architecture in Warm and Dry Climates ........................213 6.6.3 Vernacular Architecture in Temperate Climates ...............................217 6.6.4 Mid-Century Architecture in Temperate Climates ..........................220 6.6.4.1 The VDL Garden House by R Neutra ..............................221 6.6.4.2 Case Study House 22 ........................................................222 6.6.4.3 Kappe House .....................................................................226 6.6.4.4 The Occupant, the House, and the Climate ......................229 6.6.5 Vernacular Architecture in the Cold Climates ..................................230 6.7 Effects of Climate on Emissions ...................................................................231 6.7.1 Assumptions for Simulations ...........................................................232 6.7.2 Operation ..........................................................................................232 6.7.3 Construction .....................................................................................233 6.7.4 Waste ................................................................................................234 6.7.5 Water ................................................................................................234 6.7.6 Transportation...................................................................................234 6.7.7 Carbon Emissions in the Four Climates ...........................................235 Chapter 7 Solar Geometry.........................................................................................................239 7.1 The Sun in the Sky Vault ...............................................................................239 7.1.1 Solar Declination and Hour Angle ...................................................239 7.1.2 Solar Azimuth and Altitude ..............................................................241 7.2 Solar Charts ...................................................................................................243 7.2.1 Vertical Sun Path Diagram ...............................................................243 7.2.2 Horizontal Sun Path Diagram ...........................................................243 7.3 Shading the Building .....................................................................................247 7.4 Design of the Shading System .......................................................................248 7.4.1 Horizontal Shadow Angle ................................................................249 7.4.2 Vertical Shadow Angle .....................................................................250 7.4.3 Shadow Angle Protractor ..................................................................251 7.4.4 Example Design Process to Shade a South-Facing Window ............253 7.4.5 Example Design of a Shading for a Southeast-Facing Window .......257 7.5 Sundials .........................................................................................................260 7.6 Site Analysis ..................................................................................................261 7.7 Façade Orientation .........................................................................................264 7.8 Using Shadow Angles as a Design Tool ........................................................264 7.9 Calculating the Impact of Radiation on Surfaces ..........................................274 Chapter 8 Heat Exchange through the Building Envelope .......................................................275 8.1 Heat Transfer through the Building Envelope ...............................................275 8.2 Heat Transfer in Buildings .............................................................................280 8.2.1 Sensible Heat ....................................................................................280 8.2.2 Latent Heat .......................................................................................281 8.2.3 Radiant Heat .....................................................................................282 8.3 Heat Transfer by Conduction .........................................................................282 8.3.1 Conductivity .....................................................................................283 8.3.2 Conductance .....................................................................................284 8.3.3 Resistance .........................................................................................284 viii Contents 8.3.4 Thermal Transmittance (U-Value) ....................................................286 8.3.5 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity .......................................287 8.3.6 Time Lag ..........................................................................................287 8.3.7 Decrement Factor .............................................................................287 8.3.8 Heat Flow by Conduction .................................................................290 8.3.8.1 Use of Insulating Material in Walls, Ceilings, and Floors ....291 8.3.8.2 Use of Air Spaces in Walls, Ceilings, and Floors ..........292 8.3.8.3 Increase the Outer Surface Resistance of Walls and Roofs ..............................................................................292 8.3.8.4 Increase Thermal Resistance of Windows .....................292 8.3.8.5 Use of the Thickness of the Architectural Elements as a Regulator of the Building’s Indoor Temperature ....293 8.3.8.6 Energy Storage Capacity of Materials ...........................293 8.3.8.7 Reduce the Temperature Swing Using Materials with High Density and Thermal Capacity......................294 8.3.8.8 Reducing the Surface Area of the Building ...................295 8.4 Heat Transfer by Radiation ............................................................................297 8.4.1 Concepts ...........................................................................................297 8.4.2 Factors That Affect Solar Radiation .................................................297 8.4.3 Effects of Solar Radiation ................................................................299 8.4.4 Opaque Components ........................................................................301 8.4.4.1 Use of Shading Devices .................................................302 8.4.4.2 Types of Solar Protection ...............................................303 8.4.4.3 Building Volume ............................................................305 8.4.4.4 Opaque Surface Finish ...................................................305 8.4.4.5 Selection of Absorptive, Reflective, and Emissive Materials for Exterior Surfaces ......................................306 8.4.4.6 Building Components That Are Transparent to Solar Radiation ........................................................................306 8.4.4.7 Appropriate Window Selection to Control Solar Radiation ........................................................................308 8.4.4.8 Orientation of Buildings and Openings .........................312 8.4.4.9 Glazing-to-Surface Ratio ...............................................312 8.4.4.10 Use of Shading Devices .................................................313 8.5 Heat Transfer by Convection .........................................................................314 8.5.1 Definition ..........................................................................................314 8.5.2 Air Movement and Infiltration..........................................................315 8.5.3 Controlling the Exchange of Air ......................................................316 8.5.3.1 Seal the Building When Te > Ti .....................................317 8.5.3.2 Open the Building When Outdoor Temperature Is Lower than Indoor Temperature (To < Ti) ...................317 Chapter 9 Passive Cooling Systems ..........................................................................................323 9.1 Definition of a Passive Cooling System ........................................................323 9.2 Classification of Passive Cooling Systems ....................................................323 9.3 Ambient Air as a Heat Sink (Sensible Component) ......................................325 9.3.1 Comfort Ventilation ..........................................................................325 9.3.2 Nocturnal Ventilative Cooling ..........................................................328 9.3.3 Smart Ventilation ..............................................................................332 Contents ix 9.3.4 Effect of Shading on Smart Ventilation .........................................335 9.3.5 Alternative Methods to Night Ventilate: Green Cooling ...............337 9.4 Ambient Air as a Heat Sink (Latent Component: Evaporative Cooling) .....341 9.4.1 Direct Evaporative Cooling ...........................................................342 9.4.2 Indirect Evaporative Cooling ........................................................345 9.4.2.1 Givoni–La Roche Roof Pond at UCLA .......................348 9.4.2.2 Roof Ponds in a Hot and Humid Climate ....................351 9.4.2.3 Cal Poly Pomona Smart Roof Pond with Floating Insulation .....................................................................351 9.4.2.4 Cal Poly Pomona Modular Roof Pond ........................353 9.4.2.5 University of Nevada, Las Vegas Roof Pond ...............355 9.4.2.6 Fluid-Filled Windows ..................................................355 9.5 The Upper Atmosphere as a Heat Sink: Radiant Cooling ...........................356 9.5.1 Principles of Radiant Cooling System ..........................................356 9.5.2 UCLA Radiant Cooling System ....................................................357 9.5.3 Zomeworks Double-Play System ..................................................360 9.6 The Earth as a Heat Sink: Earth Coupling ...................................................360 9.6.1 Ground Cooling of the Building by Direct Contact ......................361 9.6.2 Ground Cooling of the Building by Earth-to-Air Heat Exchangers ....................................................................................362 9.6.3 Water-to-Air Heat Exchangers ......................................................363 9.6.4 Cooling the Earth ..........................................................................364 9.7 Applicability of Passive Cooling Systems ...................................................366 Chapter 10 Passive Heating ........................................................................................................369 10.1 Applicability of Passive Heating..................................................................369 10.2 Control of Heat Loss ....................................................................................369 10.3 Passive Solar Heating...................................................................................369 10.4 Types of Passive Heating Systems ...............................................................372 10.4.1 Direct Gain Systems......................................................................372 10.4.2 Indirect Gain Systems ...................................................................374 10.5 Effects of Design Strategies on Emissions ..................................................382 Chapter 11 Building Simulations and the Design of Low Carbon Buildings .............................387 11.1 Performance Simulation ..............................................................................387 11.2 Types of Building Performance Simulation .................................................390 11.3 Performance Simulations in the Design Process .........................................390 11.4 Emphasizing “Design” in the Design Simulation Process...........................394 11.5 Simulation Workflows ..................................................................................396 11.5.1 Envelope and Shade ......................................................................396 11.5.2 Daylight .........................................................................................410 11.5.3 Outdoor Comfort ...........................................................................414 11.5.3.1 Implementation of Building Simulation in Carbon-Neutral Design Strategies ...............................435 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................441 Index ..............................................................................................................................................453

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