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Carbon-based Solids and Materials Carbon-based Solids and Materials Pierre Delhaes First published 2011 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Adapted and updated from three volumes Solides et matériaux carbonés 1, 2, 3 published 2009 in France by Hermes Science/Lavoisier © LAVOISIER 2009 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address: ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030 UK USA www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com © ISTE Ltd 2011 The rights of Pierre Delhaes to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Delhaes, Pierre. Carbon-based solids and materials / Pierre Delhaes. p. cm. "Adapted and updated from three volumes Solides et matériaux carbonés 1, 2, 3 published 2009 in France by Hermes Science/Lavoisier ... 2009"-- Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-84821-200-8 1. Carbon composites. 2. Carbon compounds. I. Title. TA418.9.C6D425 2010 620.1'93--dc22 2010031623 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-84821-200-8 Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham and Eastbourne. Table of Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii PART 1. CARBON PHASES, PRECURSORS AND PARENT COMPOUNDS . . . . . . 1 Chapter 1. A Historical Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.1. The alchemy of carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2. Elemental carbon and its allotropic varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.3. Novel molecular varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.4. Natural forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.4.1. Carbon: witness of the evolution of the universe . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.4.2. Natural carbons from Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.4.3. Comparison between natural and artificial carbons . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.5. Contribution from quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.5.1. Homonuclear diatomic molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.5.2. Curved surfaces: the rehybridization phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.5.3. Presentation of the crystalline forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.5.4. The isotopes of the carbon atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 1.7. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Chapter 2. Polymorphism of Crystalline Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.1. Thermodynamic stability and phase diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.1.1. Stable and metastable phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.1.2. The phase diagram of carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.1.3. Case of the molecular phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.1.4. Crystallographic presentation of usual phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.2. Classical forms of carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.2.1. Cohesive energy and equation of state for solids . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.2.2. Structures with a fixed coordination number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 vi Carbon-based Solids and Materials 2.3. Molecular and exotic forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 2.3.1. Tri-coordinated structures on curved surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 2.3.2. Exotic structures with mixed coordination numbers . . . . . . . . . 51 2.4. State of the art and conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 2.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Chapter 3. Non-Crystalline Carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.1. Reminder about defects and imperfections in networks . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.1.1. Ideal single crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.1.2. Crystalline imperfections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.1.3. Non-crystalline solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.1.4. Homogenity of a solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.2. Thermodynamic approach and the classification of solids . . . . . . . . 70 3.2.1. Generalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.2.2. Classification of carbon-based materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.3. Fabrication and characterization techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.3.1. Thin-film coating techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.3.2. Deposition mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 3.3.3. The role of catalysts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 3.3.4. Characterizations at different scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 3.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 3.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Chapter 4. Derivative Compounds and Analogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4.1. Doping carbons and solid solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 4.1.1. Doped diamonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 4.1.2. Doped graphitic phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4.1.3. Fullerenes and nanotubes doping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 4.2. 2D and 3D analog compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 4.2.1. Boron nitride. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 4.2.2. Boron carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 4.2.3. Carbon nitrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 4.2.4. Carbon-boron nitrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 4.3. Similar materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 4.3.1. Aggregates and inorganic nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 4.3.2. Bulk compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 4.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 4.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Chapter 5. From Aromatic Precursors to the Graphene Plane . . . . . . . . 127 5.1. Condensed polyaromatic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Table of Contents vii 5.1.1. Presentation of condensed aromatic molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 5.1.2. Thermochemical evolution of organic precursors . . . . . . . . . . . 136 5.1.3. Association of aromatic molecules and supramolecular organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 5.1.4. Structural and physico-chemical characteristics of low temperature carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.2. The graphene plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 5.2.1. Characteristics and properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 5.2.2. Growth in the vapor phase and thermodynamic stability . . . . . . . 154 5.2.3. Intercalation and exfoliation processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 5.3. Current situation and conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 5.4. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 PART 2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLID CARBONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Chapter 6. General Structural Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 6.1. Elastic and mechanic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 6.1.1. Reminder of the main definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 6.1.2. Elasticity modulus of crystalline phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 6.1.3. Behavior laws relative to bulk polycrystalline graphites . . . . . . . 179 6.1.4. Behavior laws for carbon filaments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 6.2. Thermal properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 6.2.1. Thermodynamic definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 6.2.2. Specific heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 6.2.3. Thermal dilatation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 6.2.4. Thermal conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 6.3. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 6.4. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Chapter 7. Electronic Structures and Magnetic Properties . . . . . . . . . . 217 7.1. Electronic band structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 7.1.1. Band structure of hexagonal graphite single crystals . . . . . . . . . 218 7.1.2. Experimental evaluations of energy parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 7.1.3. Models for graphitic carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 7.1.4. Electronic dimensionality of π solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 7.2. Static magnetic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 7.2.1. General presentation of diamagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 7.2.2. Graphite single crystal and graphene plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 7.2.3. Different varieties of graphitic carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 7.2.4. Quantum phenomena on carbon nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 7.3. Electron spin (or paramagnetic) resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 7.3.1. General characteristics of ESR/EPR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 viii Carbon-based Solids and Materials 7.3.2. The Pauli paramagnetism of graphites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 7.3.3. EPR of various carbon varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 7.3.4. Magnetic interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 7.4. NMR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 7.4.1. Non-crystalline carbons and precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 7.4.2. Case of graphite and related compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 7.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 7.6. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Chapter 8. Electronic Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 8.1. Electrical conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 8.1.1. Different conduction mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 8.1.2. Transport in the ballistic regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 8.1.3. Non-ohmic transport and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 8.1.4. Electromechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 8.2. Galvanomagnetic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 8.2.1. Evolution of graphitic carbons in classical regime . . . . . . . . . . 293 8.2.2. Quantum phenomena in crystalline phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 8.2.3. Comparison between different types of graphitic compounds . . . . 302 8.3. Thermoelectric properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 8.3.1. Graphites and bulk carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 8.3.2. Carbon filaments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 8.3.3. Thermomagnetic effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 8.3.4. Remark on electronic thermal conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 8.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 8.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Chapter 9. Optical Properties and their Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 9.1. Properties in linear optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 9.1.1. Experimental techniques and general presentation . . . . . . . . . . 325 9.1.2. Single crystal of graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 9.1.3. Graphitic carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 9.1.4. Fullerenes and nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 9.1.5. The diamond crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 9.1.6. Adamantine carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 9.2. Nonlinear and photo-induced properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 9.2.1. Luminescence in diamond-type phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 9.2.2. Photo-induced and nonlinear effects in fullerenes . . . . . . . . . . . 348 9.2.3. Photo-induced and nonlinear effects in nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . 349 9.3. Analysis methods and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 9.3.1. Overview of the relevant techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 9.3.2. Applications in optics and optoelectronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Table of Contents ix 9.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 9.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Chapter 10. Vibrational Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 10.1. Phonon spectra in crystalline phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 10.1.1. Diamonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 10.1.2. Graphite and graphene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 10.1.3. Nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 10.1.4. Carbynes and fullerenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 10.1.5. Comparison between elongation modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 10.2. Specific characteristics of Raman scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 10.2.1. Raman resonance of graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 10.2.2. Raman resonance of π systems and electron-phonon interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 10.2.3. Influence of structural disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 10.2.4. Characterization of non-crystalline carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 10.3. Data from infrared spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 10.3.1. Thermochemical evolution of carbon-based precursors . . . . . . 396 10.3.2. Analysis of surface functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 10.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 10.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 PART 3. CARBON MATERIALS AND USES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Chapter 11. Surface and Interface Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 11.1. Physical-chemistry characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 11.1.1. Surface properties in diamonds and graphites . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 11.1.2. Case of graphitic-type phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 11.1.3. Adsorption mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 11.2. Electric and electrochemical aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 11.2.1. Double layer model and electrokinetic potential . . . . . . . . . . . 429 11.2.2. Electronic transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 11.3. Solid interfaces, tribology and mechano-chemical effects . . . . . . . 439 11.3.1. Interactions between solid surfaces in motion . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 11.3.2. Grinding of graphitic powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 11.3.3. Friction coefficients of diamond phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 11.3.4. Friction coefficients of graphitic phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 11.3.5. Wear and lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 11.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 11.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 x Carbon-based Solids and Materials Chapter 12. Chemical Reactivity and Surface Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . 461 12.1. Oxidation reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 12.1.1. Review of the reactions with molecular oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . 464 12.1.2. Combustion mechanism of various carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 12.1.3. Selectivity between different phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 12.1.4. Other gaseous oxidants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 12.1.5. Oxidation in the liquid phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 12.1.6. Oxidations in the solid phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 12.1.7. Technical analysis relevant to surface functions . . . . . . . . . . . 475 12.2. Hydrogenation and halogenation reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 12.2.1. Reactions with hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 12.2.2. Reactions with halogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 12.3. Surface treatment and heterogenous catalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 12.3.1. Surface modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 12.3.2. Catalytic effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 12.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 12.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 Chapter 13. Divided and Porous Carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 13.1. General presentation of heterogenous carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 13.1.1. Basic classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 13.1.2. Carbons from a solid phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 13.1.3. Carbons from a liquid phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 13.1.4. Porous carbons with a gas phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 13.2. Properties of porous carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 13.2.1. Porous textures and surface characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 13.2.2. Dynamic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 13.3. Competition between chemical reactions and diffusion . . . . . . . . . 533 13.3.1. The Thiele model and its ramifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 13.3.2. Chemical deposition in the vapor phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 13.3.3. Formation from energetic processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 13.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 13.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 Chapter 14. Carbon Filaments, Composites and Heterogenous Media . . . 553 14.1. Carbon filaments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 14.1.1. History of nanofilaments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 14.1.2. Evolution of carbon fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 14.1.3. Main physical characteristics of carbon filaments . . . . . . . . . . 562 14.2. Role in composite materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 14.2.1. Multidimensional and multiscale systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Table of Contents xi 14.2.2. Fiber-matrix interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 14.2.3. Classes of composites and nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 14.3. Random heterogenous media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572 14.3.1. Electrical conductivity and percolation models . . . . . . . . . . . 575 14.3.2. Role of interfacial properties and influence of the matrix . . . . . 577 14.3.3. Consequences of the percolation phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 14.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 14.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Chapter 15. Use of Carbon Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 15.1. Sensing applications and nanoelectronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 15.1.1. Sensors and actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 15.1.2. Nanoelectronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 15.2. Carbon for energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596 15.2.1. Solar radiations, conversion, and heat storage . . . . . . . . . . . . 596 15.2.2. Gas storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 15.2.3. Electrochemical storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599 15.2.4. Carbons in nuclear energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605 15.3. Thermostructural composites and transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 15.3.1. Space applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 15.3.2. Braking disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613 15.4 Carbons for chemistry and environmental problems . . . . . . . . . . . 615 15.4.1. Applications in industrial chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 15.4.2. Carbon and environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 15.5. Biocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 15.5.1. Prosthesis and medical implants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 15.5.2. Biological fluids and hemocompatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 15.5.3. Nanotoxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 15.5.4. Application trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 15.6. General conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 15.7. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Main Signs and Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 List of Basic Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635

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