C1: Principles and Processes

286 Pages·2022·7.646 MB·English

by  Saeed Sahebdelfar, Maryam Takht Ravanchi, Ashok Kumar Nadda

C Chemistry
1

C Chemistry
1
Principles and Processes
Saeed Sahebdelfar
Maryam Takht Ravanchi
Ashok Kumar Nadda
First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
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ISBN: 978-1-032-24562-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-24563-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-27928-0 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003279280
Typeset in Times
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This book is dedicated to the memory of our late teacher,
Professor Morteza Sohrabi, Amirkabir University of Technology,
who will not actually have the chance to read it but whose
teachings were our incentives for this publication.

Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................xv
Authors ...................................................................................................................xvii
Chapter 1 C Chemistry: An Overview ................................................................1
1
1.1 Introduction ...............................................................................1
1.2 Definition ...................................................................................2
1.3 C Chemistry Developments and Drivers ..................................2
1
1.4 Feedstocks .................................................................................3
1.5 Overview of Conversion Technologies ......................................4
1.6 Conclusions ................................................................................5
References ............................................................................................5
Chapter 2 C Sources ............................................................................................7
1
2.1 Introduction ...............................................................................7
2.2 Natural Gas ................................................................................7
2.2.1 Sources .........................................................................7
2.2.2 Purification and Processing ..........................................8
2.3 Carbon Dioxide .........................................................................9
2.3.1 Sources .........................................................................9
2.3.2 CO Capture Options ..................................................10
2
2.3.2.1 Pre-Combustion Capture ............................10
2.3.2.2 Post-Combustion Capture ...........................11
2.3.2.3 Oxy-Fuel Combustion .................................11
2.3.3 CO Separation Technologies .....................................11
2
2.3.3.1 CO Separation from Stationary Points ........11
2
2.3.3.2 CO Separation from Ambient Air .............18
2
2.3.4 CO Storage Options ..................................................19
2
2.3.5 CO Utilization Options .............................................20
2
2.3.6 Conclusions on Technologies for CO Capture ..........20
2
2.4 Coal..........................................................................................21
2.4.1 Chemical Composition ...............................................21
2.4.2 Gasification .................................................................22
2.4.2.1 Chemistry and Thermodynamics ...............23
2.4.2.2 Gasification Catalysts .................................24
2.4.2.3 Kinetics .......................................................25
2.4.2.4 Gasifiers ......................................................28
2.4.2.5 Commercial Technologies ..........................31
2.5 Heavy Oil Residues .................................................................32
2.6 Biomass....................................................................................33
2.6.1 Thermochemical Conversions ....................................33
vii
viii Contents
2.6.1.1 Gasification Models ....................................34
2.6.1.2 Gasification Technologies for Biomass .......34
2.6.2 Biochemical Conversion .............................................35
2.7 Conclusions ..............................................................................36
Nomenclature .....................................................................................37
References ..........................................................................................38
Chapter 3 C Interconversions .............................................................................43
1
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................43
3.2 Methane Conversions ..............................................................43
3.2.1 Reforming of Methane ...............................................43
3.2.1.1 Steam Reforming
of Methane ..................................................44
3.2.1.2 Methane Dry Reforming ............................46
3.2.1.3 Partial Oxidation
of Methane ..................................................49
3.2.1.4 Combined Reformings ................................50
3.2.2 Partial Oxidation to C Oxygenates ...........................52
1
3.2.2.1 Methane to Formaldehyde ..........................52
3.2.2.2 Methane to Methanol ..................................53
3.2.3 Methane Halides.........................................................55
3.2.3.1 Oxidative Halogenation ..............................57
3.2.3.2 Processes .....................................................59
3.2.4 Sulfurated Methanes ..................................................59
3.2.5 Methane to Hydrogen Cyanide...................................61
3.2.5.1 Chemistry of Reaction ................................62
3.2.5.2 Processes .....................................................63
3.3 Carbon Dioxide Conversions ...................................................64
3.3.1 Reverse WGS ..............................................................64
3.3.1.1 Catalysts ......................................................65
3.3.2 Methanol Synthesis (Conventional)............................66
3.3.2.1 Chemistry ...................................................66
3.3.2.2 Catalysts ......................................................67
3.3.2.3 Processes .....................................................68
3.3.3 Methanol from CO Hydrogenation ...........................68
2
3.3.3.1 Catalysts ......................................................69
3.3.3.2 Mechanism ..................................................73
3.3.3.3 Commercial Plants ......................................77
3.4 Concluding Remarks ...............................................................78
Nomenclature .....................................................................................79
References ..........................................................................................80
Chapter 4 Methane Conversions .........................................................................89
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................89
Contents ix
4.2 Chemistry of Methane .............................................................89
4.3 Non-Oxidative Conversions ....................................................90
4.3.1 High-Temperature Self-Coupling ...............................91
4.3.1.1 Mechanism ..................................................91
4.3.1.2 Industrial Processes ....................................93
4.3.2 Two-Step Methane Homologation ..............................94
4.3.2.1 Catalytic Effects .........................................95
4.3.2.2 Mechanism ..................................................97
4.3.3 Methane Dehydroaromatization .................................98
4.3.3.1 Chemistry and Thermodynamic
of Reactions ................................................98
4.3.3.2 Catalytic Systems .......................................99
4.3.3.3 Mechanism and Kinetics ..........................103
4.3.3.4 Reactor Types and Operating Conditions ....106
4.3.3.5 Surface Carbon Species ............................106
4.3.3.6 Catalyst Deactivation ................................107
4.3.3.7 Coaromatization of Methane ....................108
4.3.3.8 Processes ...................................................109
4.4 Oxidative Conversions ...........................................................109
4.4.1 Oxidative Coupling of Methane ...............................109
4.4.1.1 Chemistry of OCM ...................................110
4.4.1.2 Catalysts ....................................................111
4.4.1.3 Mechanism ................................................112
4.4.1.4 Reactor Options ........................................116
4.4.1.5 Reactor Configuration ...............................117
4.4.1.6 Process ......................................................119
4.4.1.7 Recent Developments ...............................119
4.4.1.8 Integrating OCM Process
with Other Ones ........................................122
4.5 Concluding Remarks .............................................................122
Nomenclature ...................................................................................124
References ........................................................................................124
Chapter 5 Synthesis Gas Chemistry .................................................................131
5.1 Introduction ...........................................................................131
5.2 Chemical Properties of Carbon Monoxide ............................131
5.3 Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis ....................................................132
5.3.1 Catalysts ...................................................................133
5.3.1.1 Iron-Based Catalysts .................................133
5.3.1.2 Cobalt Catalysts ........................................134
5.3.1.3 Ruthenium Catalysts .................................136
5.3.1.4 Support Effects .........................................136
5.3.1.5 Comparison ...............................................137
5.3.2 Mechanism and Kinetics ..........................................137