Biomedical Sensors and Instruments, Second Edition

414 Pages·2011·10.94 MB·English

by  Tatsuo Tagawa

S E C O N D E D I T I O N
Biomedical
Sensors
and
Instruments
Tatsuo Togawa
Toshiyo Tamura
¨
P. Åke Oberg
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-9079-6 (Ebook-PDF)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid-
ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright
holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may
rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or uti-
lized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopy-
ing, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the
publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://
www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,
978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For
organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Preface...............................................................................................................................................xi
Authors............................................................................................................................................xiii
Chapter 1 Fundamental.Concepts..................................................................................................1
1.1. Signals.and.Noise.in.the.Measurement..............................................................1
1.1.1. Measurement.........................................................................................1
1.1.2. Signals.and.Noise..................................................................................1
1.1.3. Amplitude.and.Power............................................................................2
1.1.4. Power.Spectrum....................................................................................2
1.1.5. Signal-to-Noise.Ratio............................................................................3
1.1.6. Different.Types.of.Noise.......................................................................4
1.1.6.1. Thermal.Noise.......................................................................4
1.1.6.2. 1/f.Noise.................................................................................4
1.1.6.3. Interference............................................................................4
1.1.6.4. Artifact...................................................................................5
1.2. Characteristics.of.the.Measurement.System......................................................5
1.2.1. Sensor.and.Measurement.System..........................................................5
1.2.2. Static.Characteristics.............................................................................6
1.2.2.1. Sensitivity,.Resolution,.and.Reproducibility..........................6
1.2.2.2. Measurement.Range..............................................................7
1.2.2.3. Linearity.or.Nonlinearity......................................................7
1.2.2.4. Hysteresis...............................................................................7
1.2.3. Dynamic.Characteristics.......................................................................8
1.2.3.1. Linear.and.Nonlinear.Systems..............................................8
1.2.3.2. Frequency.Response..............................................................8
1.2.3.3. Time.Constant,.Response.Time,.Rise.Time,.
and Settling.Time................................................................10
1.3. Determination.of.Absolute.Quantity................................................................10
1.3.1. Standard.and.Calibration....................................................................11
1.3.2. Accuracy.and.Error.............................................................................11
1.3.3. Types.of.Error.....................................................................................11
1.3.3.1. Random.Error......................................................................12
1.3.3.2. Systematic.Error..................................................................12
1.3.3.3. Quantization.Error...............................................................12
1.3.3.4. Dynamic.Error.....................................................................13
1.4. Units.of.Measurement.Quantities.....................................................................13
1.4.1. The.International.System.of.Units......................................................13
1.4.1.1. Base.Units.and.Derived.Units..............................................13
1.4.1.2. Dimension.of.a.Quantity......................................................14
1.4.1.3. Recommendations.for.the.Use.of.SI.Units.and.Symbols.....15
1.4.2. Non-SI.Units........................................................................................17
References...................................................................................................................17
iii
iv Contents
Chapter 2 Pressure.Measurements...............................................................................................19
2.1. Object.Quantities..............................................................................................19
2.1.1. Units.of.Pressure.................................................................................19
2.1.2. Requirements.for.Pressure.Measurement...........................................19
2.1.2.1. Physiological.Pressure.Ranges.and.Measurement.Sites......19
2.1.2.2. Reference.Point.for.Pressure.Measurement.........................22
2.2. Direct.Pressure.Measurement..........................................................................24
2.2.1. Catheters.and.the.Diaphragm-Type.Pressure.Sensor..........................24
2.2.1.1. Catheters.for.Pressure.Measurements.................................24
2.2.1.2. Diaphragm.Displacement.Sensor........................................24
2.2.2. Dynamic.Response.of.Catheter–Sensor.Systems................................29
2.2.2.1. Evaluation.of.Dynamic.Response.of.the.Catheter–
Sensor.System......................................................................30
2.2.2.2. Improvement.of.Dynamic.Response...................................33
2.2.3. Catheter-Tip.Pressure.Sensor..............................................................34
2.2.4. Implantable.Pressure.Sensors..............................................................39
2.2.4.1. Absolute.Pressure.Sensors.for.Implantable.Devices...........39
2.2.4.2. Pressure.Monitoring.by.Implantable.Devices.....................41
2.2.5. Pressure.Measurements.in.Small.Vessels...........................................45
2.2.5.1. Highly.Rigid.Pressure.Sensor.System.................................45
2.2.5.2. Servo-Controlled.Pressure-Measuring.System...................46
2.2.6. Pressure.Measurements.in.Collapsible.Vessels.and.Interstitial.
Spaces..................................................................................................47
2.2.6.1. Pressure.Measurements.in.Collapsible.Vessels...................47
2.2.6.2. Interstitial.Pressure.Measurements......................................49
2.2.7. Differential.Pressure.Measurements...................................................53
2.3. Indirect.Pressure.Measurement........................................................................54
2.3.1. Indirect.Measurement.of.Systolic,.Diastolic,.and.Mean.Blood.
Pressure...............................................................................................54
2.3.1.1. Cuff.Design.for.Indirect.Blood.Pressure.
Measurements...............................................................55
2.3.1.2. Detection.of.Korotkoff.Sounds............................................57
2.3.1.3. Mean.Blood.Pressure.Measurements.
by the Oscillometric.Method...............................................59
2.3.1.4. Blood.Pressure.Measurements.by.Doppler.Ultrasound.......61
2.3.2. Indirect.Measurements.of.Instantaneous.Arterial.Pressure................63
2.3.3. Indirect.Pressure.Measurements.by.Reaction.Forces.........................66
2.3.3.1. Applanation.Method............................................................66
2.3.3.2. Intraocular.Pressure.Measurements....................................67
2.3.3.3. Intra-Amniotic.and.Intra-Abdominal.Pressure.
Measurements......................................................................71
2.3.3.4. Intracranial.Pressure.Measurement.in.Newborn.Infants.....72
2.3.3.5. Arterial.Tonometry..............................................................73
References...................................................................................................................74
Chapter 3 Flow.Measurement......................................................................................................81
3.1. Object.Quantities..............................................................................................81
3.1.1. Units.in.Flow.Measurements...............................................................81
3.1.2. Requirements.for.Measurement.Ranges.............................................82
Contents v
3.1.2.1. Blood.Flow.in.a.Single.Vessel.............................................82
3.1.2.2. Tissue.Blood.Flow...............................................................83
3.1.2.3. Respiratory.Gas.Flow..........................................................84
3.2. Blood.Flow.Measurements.in.Single.Vessels...................................................85
3.2.1. Electromagnetic.Flowmeter................................................................85
3.2.1.1. Principle...............................................................................85
3.2.1.2. Factors.Affecting.the.Measurements...................................86
3.2.2. Ultrasonic.Blood.Flowmeters..............................................................86
3.2.2.1. Propagation.of.Ultrasound.in.the.Tissue.............................86
3.2.2.2. Transit.Time.and.Phase.Shift.Ultrasound.Flowmeters........88
3.2.2.3. Ultrasonic.Doppler.Flowmeters...........................................93
3.2.2.4. Methods.of.Range.Discrimination......................................97
3.2.2.5. Perivascular.and.Intravascular.Doppler.Probes.................101
3.2.3. Indicator.Dilution.Method.................................................................102
3.2.3.1. Principle.............................................................................102
3.2.3.2. Dye.Dilution.Method.........................................................104
3.2.3.3. Thermodilution.Method.....................................................106
3.2.3.4. The.Fick.Method................................................................109
3.2.3.5. Other.Dilution.Methods.....................................................110
3.2.4. Flow.Velocity.Measurements.by.Heat.Dissipation...........................111
3.2.4.1. Thermistor.Velocity.Probes...............................................111
3.2.4.2. Hot.Film.Velocity.Probes..................................................112
3.2.5. Impedance.Cardiography..................................................................113
3.2.6. Blood.Flow.Recording.in.Single Vessels.by.Laser.Doppler.
Flowmetry.........................................................................................116
3.2.6.1. Introduction.......................................................................116
3.2.6.2. Airborne.Beams.................................................................116
3.2.6.3. Microscope-Based.Instrument...........................................116
3.2.6.4. Catheter-Based.Instruments...............................................117
3.2.7. Correlation.Methods.for.Microvascular Red Blood Cell.Velocity.
Measurement.....................................................................................119
3.2.8. Miscellaneous.Mechanical.Flowmeters............................................122
3.2.9. Implantable.Flow.Sensors.................................................................124
3.3. Tissue.Blood.Flow.Measurement...................................................................125
3.3.1. Venous.Occlusion.Plethysmography.................................................125
3.3.1.1. Venous.Occlusion.Method.................................................125
3.3.1.2. Displacement.Plethysmographies......................................126
3.3.1.3. Impedance.Plethysmographies..........................................129
3.3.2. Clearance.Technique.........................................................................131
3.3.2.1. Principle.............................................................................131
3.3.2.2. Use.of.Radioactive.Indicators............................................133
3.3.2.3. Hydrogen.Gas.Clearance.Method......................................134
3.3.3. Tissue.Blood.Flow.Measurements.by.Indicator.Dilution.
Method.......................................................................................137
3.3.4. Tissue.Blood.Flow.Measurements.by.Heat.Transport......................138
3.3.5. Tissue.Blood.Flow.Measurement.by.Laser.Doppler.Flowmetry......138
3.3.5.1. Introduction.......................................................................138
3.3.5.2. Interaction.between.Light.and.Tissue................................139
3.3.5.3. Instrument.Design.Principles............................................143
3.3.5.4. Fiberoptic.Arrangements...................................................144
3.3.5.5. Self-Mixing.Laser.Diode.Technology...............................146
vi Contents
3.3.5.6. Signal.Processing.Principles..............................................146
3.3.5.7. Calibration.and.Standardization.of.Laser.Doppler.
Flowmeters........................................................................147
3.3.5.8. Laser.Doppler.Perfusion.Imaging.....................................148
3.3.6. Tissue.Blood.Flow.Measurements.by.Nuclear.Magnetic.
Resonance..........................................................................................151
3.3.6.1. Principle.of.Nuclear.Magnetic.Resonance........................151
3.3.6.2. Magnetic.Resonance.Tissue.Blood.Flow.Measurement.
Methods.............................................................................155
3.4. Respiratory.Gas.Flow.Measurements............................................................157
3.4.1. Gas.Flow.Sensors..............................................................................157
3.4.1.1. Rotameter...........................................................................157
3.4.1.2. Pneumotachograph............................................................159
3.4.1.3. Hot-Wire.Anemometer......................................................161
3.4.1.4. Time-of-Flight.Flowmeter.................................................165
3.4.1.5. Ultrasonic.Flowmeter........................................................167
3.4.1.6. Vortex.Flowmeter..............................................................169
3.4.1.7. Acoustical.Respiratory.Flow.Measurements.....................170
3.4.2. Volume.Measuring.Spirometers........................................................171
3.4.3. Lung.Plethysmography......................................................................172
3.4.3.1. Body.Plethysmography......................................................172
3.4.3.2. Inductance.Plethysmography.............................................174
3.4.3.3. Impedance.Pneumography................................................175
References.................................................................................................................177
Chapter 4 Motion.and.Force.Measurement...............................................................................191
4.1. Objects.of.Measurement.................................................................................191
4.1.1. Units.of.Quantities............................................................................191
4.1.2. Objects.of.Measurements..................................................................191
4.1.3. Coordinate.System............................................................................192
4.2. Motion.Measurements....................................................................................193
4.2.1. Displacement.and.Rotation.Measurements.by.Contact.Sensors.......194
4.2.1.1. Displacement.and.Rotation.Measurements.
of the Body and.an.Extracted.Tissue.................................194
4.2.1.2. Displacement.Measurements.in Vivo.................................200
4.2.2. Noncontact.Measurement.of.Displacement.and.Rotation.................203
4.2.2.1. Optical.Methods................................................................203
4.2.2.2. Magnetic.Methods.............................................................206
4.2.3. Linear.and.Angular.Velocity.Measurements....................................207
4.2.3.1. Electromagnetic.Velocity.Sensors.....................................208
4.2.3.2. Doppler.Methods...............................................................209
4.2.3.3. Angular.Velocity.Sensors..................................................210
4.2.4. Translational.and.Angular.Acceleration.Measurements...................211
4.2.4.1. Translational.Accelerometers............................................212
4.2.4.2. Angular.Accelerometers....................................................215
4.3. Force.Measurements.......................................................................................216
4.3.1. Muscle.Contraction.Measurements...................................................216
4.3.1.1. Design.of.the.Elastic.Beam.for.Muscle.Contraction.
Measurements....................................................................216
Contents vii
4.3.1.2. Force.Measurements.in.Isolated.Muscles..........................217
4.3.1.3. In Vivo.Measurements.of.Muscular.Contraction...............218
4.3.2. Measurements.of.Stresses.in.the.Bone..............................................219
4.3.3. Ground.Force.Measurements............................................................221
4.3.3.1. The.Force.Plates................................................................221
4.3.3.2. Stabilometers.....................................................................222
4.3.3.3. Instrumented.Shoe.............................................................224
4.3.3.4. Foot.Force.Distribution.Measurements.............................227
References.................................................................................................................228
Chapter 5 Temperature,.Heat.Flow,.and.Evaporation.Measurements........................................235
5.1. Object.Quantities............................................................................................235
5.1.1. Units.of.Thermal.Quantities..............................................................235
5.1.2. Requirements.for.Measurement.Ranges...........................................236
5.2. Temperature.Sensors......................................................................................238
5.2.1. Thermistors.......................................................................................238
5.2.2. Thermocouples..................................................................................240
5.2.3. Wire.and.Thin.Film.Thermoresistive.Elements................................242
5.2.4. p–n.Junction.Diodes.and.Transistors................................................243
5.2.5. Crystal.Resonators............................................................................245
5.2.6. Temperature.Sensors.for.Use.in.Strong.Electromagnetic.Fields.......246
5.3. Noncontact.Temperature.Measurement.Techniques......................................248
5.3.1. Infrared.Measurements.....................................................................249
5.3.1.1. Infrared.Radiation.Thermometers.....................................249
5.3.1.2. Infrared.Detectors..............................................................250
5.3.1.3. Infrared.Thermography.....................................................253
5.3.2. Noninvasive.Thermal.Imaging.in.Deep.Tissue.................................254
5.3.2.1. Magnetic.Resonance.Thermal.Imaging............................255
5.3.2.2. Active.and.Passive.Microwave.Thermal.Imaging.............255
5.3.2.3. Ultrasonic.Thermal.Imaging.............................................256
5.3.2.4. Thermal.Imaging.by.Tissue.Electrical.Impedance...........257
5.4. Clinical.Thermometers...................................................................................257
5.4.1. Indwelling.Thermometer.Probes.......................................................257
5.4.1.1. Rectal.Temperature.Measurement.....................................257
5.4.1.2. Esophageal.Temperature.Measurement.............................258
5.4.1.3. Bladder.Temperature.Measurement...................................258
5.4.2. Tympanic.Thermometers..................................................................258
5.4.2.1. Contact.Probes...................................................................258
5.4.2.2. Noncontact.Tympanic.Thermometers...............................259
5.4.3. Zero-Heat-Flow.Thermometer..........................................................260
5.4.4. Telemetering.Capsules......................................................................261
5.4.4.1. Radio.Pill...........................................................................261
5.4.4.2. Ultrasonic-Coupling.Crystal.Resonator............................263
5.5. Heat.Flow.Measurements...............................................................................263
5.5.1. Heat.Flow.Sensors.............................................................................263
5.5.2. Heat.Flow.Measurement.at.the.Body.Surface...................................265
5.5.3. Direct.Calorimetry............................................................................267
5.6. Evaporation.Measurement..............................................................................268
5.6.1. Introduction.......................................................................................268
viii Contents
5.6.2. Humidity.Sensors..............................................................................269
5.6.2.1. The.Electrolytic.Water.Vapor.Analyzer............................269
5.6.2.2. Thermal.Conductivity.Cell................................................269
5.6.2.3. Infrared.Water.Vapor.Analyzer.........................................270
5.6.2.4. Dew-Point.Hygrometer......................................................270
5.6.2.5. Electrohygrometer.............................................................270
5.6.2.6. Capacitive.Humidity.Sensor..............................................271
5.6.2.7. Impedance.Humidity.Sensor.............................................271
5.6.2.8. Thermoelectric.Psychrometer............................................271
5.6.3. Measurement.of.Evaporative.Water.Loss.from.Skin.and.Mucosa....272
5.6.3.1. Unventilated.Chamber.......................................................272
5.6.3.2. Ventilated.Chamber...........................................................272
5.6.3.3. Gradient.Estimation.Method.............................................273
References.................................................................................................................275
Chapter 6 Bioelectric.and.Biomagnetic.Measurements.............................................................281
6.1. Objects.of.Measurements...............................................................................281
6.1.1. Units.of.Electromagnetic.Measurements..........................................281
6.1.1.1. Electrical.Units..................................................................281
6.1.1.2. Magnetic.Units...................................................................282
6.1.2. Requirements.for.Measurement.Ranges...........................................282
6.1.2.1. Bioelectric.Events..............................................................282
6.1.2.2. Biomagnetic.Events...........................................................283
6.2. Electrode.Theory............................................................................................283
6.2.1. Electrode–Electrolyte.Interface........................................................283
6.2.2. Liquid.Junction.Potentials.................................................................284
6.2.3. Double.Layer.....................................................................................285
6.2.4. Electrode.Potential............................................................................287
6.3. Surface.Potential.Electrodes..........................................................................288
6.3.1. ECG.Electrodes.................................................................................288
6.3.1.1. Silver–Silver.Chloride.Electrode.......................................289
6.3.1.2. Stainless.Steel.Electrodes..................................................290
6.3.1.3. Electrode.Impedance.........................................................290
6.3.1.4. Motion.Artifacts................................................................294
6.3.1.5. Dry.Contactless.or.Capacitive.Electrodes.........................294
6.3.2. Electromyogram.Electrodes..............................................................295
6.3.2.1. Surface.Electrodes.............................................................295
6.3.2.2. Needle.and.Wire.Electrodes..............................................296
6.3.3. Electroencephalogram.Electrodes.....................................................296
6.4. Micro.and.Suction.Electrodes........................................................................298
6.4.1. Glass.Microelectrodes.......................................................................298
6.4.2. Metal.Microelectrodes......................................................................299
6.4.3. Suction.Electrodes.............................................................................300
6.4.4. Patch.Clamping.................................................................................301
6.5. Biomagnetism.................................................................................................301
6.5.1. Biomagnetic.Fields............................................................................301
6.5.1.1. Magnetopneumography.....................................................302
6.5.1.2. Magnetoencephalography..................................................303
Contents ix
6.5.2. Induction.Coil.Measurements...........................................................303
6.5.3. Fluxgate.Magnetometer.....................................................................304
6.5.4. Squid.Systems...................................................................................306
6.5.5. Magnetic.Noise.and.Shielding..........................................................308
References.................................................................................................................311
Chapter 7 Chemical.Measurement.............................................................................................315
7.1. Objects.of.Measurements...............................................................................315
7.1.1. Units.of.Chemical.Quantities............................................................315
7.1.2. Objects.of.Chemical.Measurement...................................................316
7.1.3. Requirements.and.Limitations.in.Chemical.Measurements.............317
7.2. Chemical.Sensors...........................................................................................317
7.2.1. Electrochemical.Sensors...................................................................317
7.2.1.1. Electrode.Potential.and.Reference.Electrode....................318
7.2.1.2. Potentiometric.Sensors......................................................321
7.2.1.3. Amperometric.Sensors......................................................325
7.2.1.4. Electrochemical.Gas.Sensors............................................328
7.2.1.5. Impedimetric.Sensors........................................................333
7.2.2. Optically.Based.Chemical.Sensors...................................................334
7.2.2.1. Spectrophotometric.Chemical.Analysis............................334
7.2.2.2. Chemical.Sensors.Based.on.Surface.Plasmon.Resonance....337
7.2.2.3. Fiber.Optic.Chemical.Sensors...........................................339
7.2.3. Chemical.Sensors.of.Acoustic.and.Thermal.Principles....................341
7.2.4. Biosensors.........................................................................................345
7.2.4.1. Enzyme-Based.Biosensors................................................345
7.2.4.2. Immunosensors..................................................................348
7.2.4.3. DNA.Sensors.....................................................................350
7.2.4.4. Microbial.Sensors..............................................................352
7.2.5. Other.Analytical.Methods.and.Instrumentations..............................353
7.2.5.1. Mass.Spectrometry............................................................353
7.2.5.2. Chromatography................................................................356
7.2.5.3. Electrophoresis..................................................................357
7.2.5.4. Magnetic.Resonance..........................................................359
7.2.5.5. Other.Analytical.Methods.Based.on.Physical.Material.
Properties...........................................................................361
7.3. Continuous.Measurements.of.Chemical.Quantities.......................................363
7.3.1. Measurements.by.Indwelling.Sensors...............................................364
7.3.1.1. Intravascular.Measurements..............................................364
7.3.1.2. Tissue.Measurements.........................................................367
7.3.2. Ex Vivo.Measurements......................................................................368
7.3.2.1. Measurements.by.Blood.Drainage....................................368
7.3.2.2. Microdialysis.....................................................................371
7.3.3. Transcutaneous.Measurements.........................................................373
7.3.3.1. The.Skin.as.a.Membrane.in.Transcutaneous.
Measurements....................................................................373
7.3.3.2. Transcutaneous.Blood.Gas.Measurements........................375
7.3.3.3. Transcutaneous.Arterial.Oxygen.Saturation.Monitoring....378
7.3.3.4. Transcutaneous.Glucose.Monitoring.................................383