Biomechanics. Principles and applications PDF
Preview Biomechanics. Principles and applications
Artwork for the cover design was adapted from Littler, J.W. 1986. The finger extensor system. Some approaches to the correction of its disabilities. Orthop. Clin. North Am. Jul;17(3):483-492. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-8534-6 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. 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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Biomechanics / editors, Donald R. Peterson and Joseph D. Bronzino. p. ; cm. “A CRC title.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8493-8534-6 (alk. paper) 1. Biomechanics. I. Peterson, Donald R. II. Bronzino, Joseph D., 1937- III. Title. [DNLM: 1. Biomechanics. 2. Cardiovascular Physiology. WE 103 B61453 2008] QP303.B5682 2008 612’.01441--dc22 2007020173 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Table of Contents 1 MechanicsofHardTissue J.LawrenceKatz.....................................................................1-1 2 MusculoskeletalSoftTissueMechanics RichardL.Lieber,ThomasJ.Burkholder.............................................2-1 3 Joint-ArticulatingSurfaceMotion KentonR.Kaufman,Kai-NanAn....................................................3-1 4 JointLubrication MichaelJ.Furey.....................................................................4-1 5 AnalysisofGait RoyB.Davis,III,Sylvia O˜unpuu,PeterA.DeLuca..................................5-1 6 MechanicsofHead/Neck AlbertI.King,DavidC.Viano.......................................................6-1 7 BiomechanicsofChestandAbdomenImpact DavidC.Viano,AlbertI.King.......................................................7-1 8 CardiacBiomechanics AndrewD.McCulloch...............................................................8-1 9 HeartValveDynamics AjitP.Yoganathan,JackD.Lemmon,JeffreyT.Ellis..................................9-1 10 ArterialMacrocirculatoryHemodynamics BaruchB.Lieber....................................................................10-1 11 MechanicsofBloodVessels ThomasR.Canfield,PhilipB.Dobrin..............................................11-1 12 TheVenousSystem ArtinA.Shoukas,CarlF.Rothe.....................................................12-1 v 13 Mechanics,MolecularTransport,andRegulationintheMicrocirculation AleksanderS.Popel,RolandN.Pittman............................................13-1 14 MechanicsandDeformabilityofHematocytes RichardE.Waugh,RobertM.Hochmuth...........................................14-1 15 MechanicsofTissue/LymphaticTransport GeertW.Schmid-Scho¨nbein,AlanR.Hargens......................................15-1 16 ModelinginCellularBiomechanics AlexanderA.Spector,RogerTran-Son-Tay..........................................16-1 17 CochlearMechanics CharlesR.Steele,GaryJ.Baker,JasonA.Tolomeo,DeborahE.Zetes-Tolomeo......17-1 18 VestibularMechanics WallaceGrant......................................................................18-1 19 ExercisePhysiology ArthurT.Johnson,CathrynR.Dooly...............................................19-1 20 FactorsAffectingMechanicalWorkinHumans BenF.Hurley,ArthurT.Johnson...................................................20-1 vi Preface Engineeringistheintegrationofartandscienceandinvolvestheuseofsystematicknowledgebasedonthe principlesofmathematicsandthephysicalsciencestodesignanddevelopsystemsthathavedirectpractical applicabilityforthebenefitofmankindandsociety.Withthisphilosophyinmind,theimportanceofthe engineeringsciencesbecomesobvious,andthisisespeciallytrueforthebiomedicalaspects,wherethe implicationsareeasilyidentifiable.Ofalltheengineeringsciences,biomedicalengineeringisconsidered tobethebroadest.Itspracticefrequentlyinvolvesthedirectcombinationofthecoreengineeringsciences, suchasmechanical,electrical,andchemicalengineering,andrequiresafunctionalknowledgeofother nonengineeringdisciplines,suchasbiologyandmedicine,toachieveeffectivesolutions.Itisamultidis- ciplinarysciencewithitsowncoreaspects,suchasbiomechanics,bioinstrumentation,andbiomaterials, whichcanbefurthercharacterizedbyatriageofsubjectmatter.Forexample,thestudyofbiomechanics, orbiologicalmechanics,employstheprinciplesofmechanics,whichisabranchofthephysicalsciences thatinvestigatestheeffectsofenergyandforcesonmatterormaterialsystems.Itoftenembracesabroad rangeofsubjectmatterthatmayincludeaspectsofclassicalmechanics,materialscience,fluidmechanics, heattransfer,andthermodynamics,inanattempttomodelandpredictthemechanicalbehaviorsofany livingsystem.Assuch,itmaybecalledthe“liberalarts”ofthebiomedicalengineeringsciences. Biomechanicsisdeeplyrootedthroughoutscientifichistoryandhasbeeninfluencedbytheresearch workofearlymathematicians,engineers,physicists,biologists,andphysicians.Notoneofthesedisciplines canclaimsoleresponsibilityformaturingbiomechanicstoitscurrentstate;rather,ithasbeenaconglom- erationandintegrationofthesedisciplines,involvingtheapplicationofmathematics,physicalprinciples, andengineeringmethodologies,thathasbeenresponsibleforitsadvancement.Severalexaminationsexist thatofferahistoricalperspectiveonbiomechanicsindedicatedchapterswithinavarietyofbiomechanics textbooks.Forthisreason,ahistoricalperspectiveisnotpresentedwithinthisintroductionanditisleft to the reader to discover the material within one of these textbooks. As an example, Y.C. Fung (1993) providesareasonablydetailedsynopsisofthosewhowereinfluentialtotheprogressofbiomechanical understanding.Areviewofthismaterialandsimilarmaterialfromotherauthorscommonlyshowsthat biomechanicshasoccupiedthethoughtsofsomeofthemostconscientiousmindsinvolvedinavarietyof thesciences. LeonardodaVinci,oneoftheearlypioneersofbiomechanics,wasthefirsttointroducetheprincipleof “causeandeffect”inscientifictermsashefirmlybelievedthat“thereisnoresultinnaturewithoutacause; understandthecauseandyouwillhavenoneedoftheexperiment”(1478–1518).Leonardounderstood thatexperimentationisanessentialtoolfordevelopinganunderstandingofnature’scausesandtheresults they produce, especially when the cause is not immediately obvious. The contemporary approach to understandandsolveproblemsinengineeringexpandsuponLeonardo’sprincipleandtypicallyfollowsa sequenceoffundamentalstepsthatarecommonlydefinedasobservation,experimentation,theorization, validation,andapplication.Thesestepsarethebasisoftheengineeringmethodologiesandtheirsignificance isemphasizedwithinaformalengineeringeducation,especiallyinbiomedicalengineering.Eachstepis consideredtobeequallyimportant,andaniterativerelationshipbetweensteps,withmathematicsserving vii asthecommonlink,isoftennecessaryinordertoconvergeonapracticalunderstandingofthesystemin question.Anengineeringeducationthatignorestheseinterrelatedfundamentalswillproduceengineers whoareignorantofthewaysinwhichreal-worldphenomenadifferfrommathematicalmodels.Sincemost biomechanicalsystemsareinherentlycomplexandcannotbeadequatelydefinedusingonlytheoryand mathematics,biomechanicsshouldbeconsideredadisciplinewhoseprogressreliesheavilyonresearch andexperimentationandthecarefulimplementationofthesequenceofsteps.Whenaprecisesolution is not obtainable, utilizing this approach will assist with identifying critical physical phenomena and obtainingapproximatesolutionsthatmayprovideadeeperunderstandingaswellasimprovementstothe investigativestrategy.Notsurprisingly,theneedtoidentifycriticalphenomenaandobtainapproximate solutionsseemstobemoresignificantinbiomedicalengineeringthananyotherengineeringdiscipline, whichcanbeattributedtothecomplexbiologicalprocessesinvolved. Applicationsofbiomechanicshavetraditionallyfocusedonmodelingthesystem-levelaspectsofthe human body, such as the musculoskeletal system, the respiratory system, and the cardiovascular and cardiopulmonarysystems.Technologically,mostoftheprogresshasbeenmadeonsystem-leveldevice developmentandimplementation,withobviousinfluencesonathleticperformance,workenvironment interaction,clinicalrehabilitation,orthotics,prosthetics,andorthopaedicsurgery.However,morerecent biomechanicsinitiativesarenowfocusingonthemechanicalbehaviorsofthebiologicalsubsystems,such astissues,cells,andmolecules,inordertorelatesubsystemfunctionsacrossalllevelsbyshowinghow mechanicalfunctioniscloselyassociatedwithcertaincellularandmolecularprocesses.Theseinitiatives haveadirectimpactonthedevelopmentofbiologicalnano-andmicrotechnologiesinvolvingpolymer dynamics,biomembranes,andmolecularmotors.Theintegrationofsystemandsubsystemmodelswill advanceouroverallunderstandingofhumanfunctionandperformanceandfurtherdeveloptheprin- ciples of biomechanics. Even still, our modern understanding about certain biomechanic processes is limited,butthroughongoingbiomechanicsresearch,newinformationthatinfluencesthewaywethink aboutbiomechanicsisgeneratedandimportantapplicationsthatareessentialtothebettermentofhuman existencearediscovered.Asaresult,ourlimitationsarereducedandourunderstandingbecomesmore refined.Recentadvancesinbiomechanicscanalsobeattributedtoadvancesinexperimentalmethodsand instrumentation,suchascomputationalpowerandimagingcapabilities,whicharealsosubjecttoconstant progress. Therapidadvanceofbiomechanicsresearchcontinuestoyieldalargeamountofliteraturethatexistsin theformofvariousresearchandtechnicalpapersandspecializedreportsandtextbooksthatareonlyacces- sibleinvariousjournalpublicationsanduniversitylibraries.Withoutaccesstotheseresources,collecting thepublicationsthatbestdescribethecurrentstateoftheartwouldbeextremelydifficult.Withthisin mind,thistextbookoffersaconvenientcollectionofchaptersthatpresentcurrentprinciplesandappli- cationsofbiomechanicsfromrespectedpublishedscientistswithdiversebackgroundsinbiomechanics researchandapplication.Atotalof20chaptersispresented,12ofwhichhavebeensubstantiallyupdated andrevisedtoensurethepresentationofmodernviewpointsanddevelopments.Thechapterswithinthis texthavebeenorganizedinanattempttopresentthematerialinasystematicmanner.Thefirstgroup of chapters is related to musculoskeletal mechanics and includes hard and soft tissue mechanics, joint mechanics,andapplicationsrelatedtohumanfunction.Thenextgroupofchapterscoversseveralaspects ofbiofluidmechanicsandincludesawiderangeofcirculatorydynamics,suchasbloodvesselandblood cellmechanics,andtransport.Itisfollowedbyachapterthatintroducescurrentmethodsandstrategies for modeling cellular mechanics. The next group consists of two chapters introducing the mechanical functionsandsignificanceofthehumanear.Finally,theremainingtwochaptersintroduceperformance characteristicsofthehumanbodysystemduringexerciseandexertion.Itistheoverallintentionofthis texttoserveasareferencetotheskilledprofessionalaswellasanintroductiontothenoviceorstudent ofbiomechanics.Anattemptwasmadetoincorporatematerialthatcoversabulkofthebiomechanics field;however,asbiomechanicscontinuestogrow,sometopicsmaybeinadvertentlyomittedcausinga viii disproportionatepresentationofthematerial.Suggestionsandcommentsfromreadersarewelcomedon subjectmatterthatshouldbeconsideredinfutureeditionsofthistextbook. Throughtherationalizationofbiomechanics,Ifindmyselfappreciatingthecomplexityandbeautyof alllivingsystems.Ihopethatthistextbookhelpsyourunderstandingofbiomechanicsandyourdiscovery oflife. DonaldR.Peterson,Ph.D.,M.S. UniversityofConnecticutHealthCenter Farmington,Connecticut References FungYC.1993.Biomechanics:MechanicalPropertiesofLivingTissues.2nded.NewYork,Springer–Verlag. daVinciL.1478–1518.CodiceAtlantico,147v.a. ix
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