Best Practice Guide on the Control of Lead in Drinking Water

104 Pages·2013·2.147 MB·English

by  Hayes, Colin

Best Practice Guide
on the Control of
Lead in Drinking Water

Metals and Related Substances in Drinking Water Series
Best Practice Guide
on the Control of
Lead in Drinking Water
Edited by
Dr Colin Hayes
Swansea University, UK
Published by IWAPublishing
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ISBN 10:1843393697
ISBN 13:9781843393696
Contents
Authors ..................................................................................................................................................... vii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. viii
Acronyms ................................................................................................................................................... ix
Definitions ................................................................................................................................................... x
About this Best Practice Guide ................................................................................................................ xi
Disclaimer ................................................................................................................................................. xii
Foreword .................................................................................................................................................. xiii
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................ xiv
Chapter 1 Sources of lead in drinking water .................................................................................... 1
1.1 Water resources .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Distribution systems ................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Lead pipe service connections .................................................................................. 1
1.4 Domestic lead pipe-work ........................................................................................... 1
1.5 Brass fittings containing lead .................................................................................... 2
1.6 Galvanic corrosion of solders containing lead ......................................................... 3
1.7 Plasticizers .................................................................................................................. 3
1.8 Soluble and particulate lead fractions ....................................................................... 3
Chapter 2 Regulatory background ..................................................................................................... 5
2.1 World Health Organization guidelines for drinking water ...................................... 5
2.2 EU drinking water directives .................................................................................... 7
2.3 US Lead Copper Rule ............................................................................................... 8
2.4 Developing legislation in Canada ............................................................................. 9
2.5 Protocol on Water and Health ................................................................................. 10
Chapter 3 Sampling and monitoring ................................................................................................ 13
3.1 Role of monitoring in plumbosolvency control ...................................................... 13
3.2 Sampling methods .................................................................................................... 16
3.3 Analysis .................................................................................................................... 19
3.4 Zonal monitoring ..................................................................................................... 19
3.5 Investigations at individual properties .................................................................... 22
Chapter 4 Health perspectives ........................................................................................................... 25
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 25
4.2 Toxicity of lead to humans ..................................................................................... 25
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vi Best Practice Guide on the Control of Lead in Drinking Water
4.3 Lead in drinking water and lead in blood .............................................................. 26
4.4 Lead in blood and health effects ............................................................................. 27
4.5 Acute affects of lead ................................................................................................ 28
Chapter 5 Evidence of problems with lead in drinking water ...................................................... 29
5.1 Emerging evidence of problems in Europe ............................................................ 29
5.2 Occurrence of lead pipes in the EU ........................................................................ 31
5.3 Occurrence of lead pipes in North America ........................................................... 32
Chapter 6 Risk assessment and health surveillance ....................................................................... 33
6.1 Defining risks from lead in drinking water ............................................................ 33
6.2 Assessing risk at the zonal level ............................................................................. 35
6.3 Risk assessment at individual premises .................................................................. 39
6.4 Health impact assessment ........................................................................................ 39
Chapter 7 Lead pipe replacement and other engineering options ............................................... 41
7.1 Survey techniques for identifying lead pipes ......................................................... 41
7.2 Engineering options for lead pipe replacement or modification ............................ 42
7.3 Partial lead pipe replacement .................................................................................. 43
7.4 Total lead pipe replacement .................................................................................... 44
Chapter 8 Corrective water treatment ............................................................................................. 45
8.1 pH elevation and centralised softening ................................................................... 45
8.2 The corrosion inhibitors used in reducing plumbosolvency .................................. 46
8.3 Engineering design of ortho-phosphate dosing plants ............................................ 48
8.4 Ortho-phosphate dose optimisation ......................................................................... 49
8.5 Environmental impact of ortho-phosphate dosing .................................................. 54
Chapter 9 Control of materials ......................................................................................................... 57
9.1 The materials that can leach lead ........................................................................... 57
9.2 Screening and testing methods ................................................................................ 58
Chapter 10 Investigational methods ................................................................................................... 59
10.1 Laboratory plumbosolvency testing ........................................................................ 59
10.2 Lead pipe test rigs ................................................................................................... 62
10.3 Zonal compliance modelling ................................................................................... 63
Chapter 11 Economics of plumbosolvency control ........................................................................... 69
11.1 Ortho-phosphate dosing ........................................................................................... 69
11.2 Lead pipe replacement ............................................................................................. 69
11.3 Cost comparisons using net present value .............................................................. 70
Chapter 12 References .......................................................................................................................... 71
Appendix 1 Case studies ....................................................................................................................... 75
A1.1 Brussels (BE): partial lead pipe replacement ......................................................... 75
A1.2 Cambridge (UK): optimised ortho-phosphate dosing ............................................. 76
A1.3 Den Haag (The Hague) (NL): pH elevation and lead pipe replacement .............. 78
A1.4 Lisbon (PT): ortho-phosphate dosing strategy ........................................................ 79
A1.5 Ottawa, Ontario (CA): effect of pH ........................................................................ 80
A1.6 Vienna (AT): partial lead pipe replacement ........................................................... 82
A1.7 Wales (UK): optimised ortho-phosphate dosing ..................................................... 83
Authors
Dr Colin Hayes, Swansea University (UK)
Roger Aertgeerts, World Health Organization (Int)
Lisa Barrott, MWH (UK)
Angelika Becker, IWW (D)
Maria Joao Benoliel, EPAL (PT)
Dr Brian Croll, Consultant (UK)
Professor Marc Edwards, Virginia Tech (US)
Dr Daniel Gari, National Institute of Public Health (CZ)
Dr Eddo Hoekstra, Joint Research Centre (EC)
Martin Jung, Austrian Institute of Technology (AT)
France Lemieux, Health Canada (CA)
Dr Adam Postawa, AGH Krakow (PL)
Achim Ruebel, IWW (D)
Dr Larry Russell, Reed International Ltd (US)
Michael Schock, US Environmental Protection Agency (US)
Nina Skubala, Swansea University (UK)
Professor Stanislaw Witszak, AGH Krakow (PL)
Marcel Tielemans, Het Waterlaboratorium (NL)
Dr Magdalena Zabochnicka-Swiatek, Technical University of Czestochowa (PL)
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Acknowledgements
ThisBestPracticeGuidederivesfromtheknowledgeassembledbytheEuropeanresearchnetworkCOST
Action 637, supported by a wide range of experts from 26 European countries, the US and Canada. The
funding received from COST over the period December 2006 to November 2010 is duly acknowledged.
ThemainobjectiveofCOSTAction637istostimulatebettercontrolofmetalsindrinkingwaterand
tominimiseenvironmentalandhealthimpacts.TheActionaimstocontributetotheimplementationofthe
European Drinking Water Directive and to the Environment and Health programme of the EU
CommissionandtheUN/WHOProtocolonWaterandHealth.TheJointResearchCentreoftheEuropean
Commission provides scientific input in the COST Action but is also the link to the European
Commission. COST stands for European Cooperation in Science and Technology and is the oldest and
widest European inter-governmental network for cooperation in research. COST is supported by the EU
RTD Framework programme (www.cost.esf.org).
Thanksarealsoduetoallthewatercompanies,regulators,healthagenciesandresearchinstituteswho
have provided access to data.
#2010TheAuthors.BestPracticeGuideontheControlofLeadinDrinkingWater.EditedbyDrColinHayes.ISBN:9781843393696.
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Acronyms
AL Action level
DAC Daily average concentration
DIC Dissolved inorganic carbon
E Equilibrium concentration
EU European Union
LCR Lead Copper Rule (US)
M Initial mass transfer rate of lead dissolution to water
RDT Random daytime sampling
UK United Kingdom
US United States
WHO World Health Organization
30 MS 30 minutes stagnation sampling
#2010TheAuthors.BestPracticeGuideontheControlofLeadinDrinkingWater.EditedbyDrColinHayes.ISBN:9781843393696.
PublishedbyIWAPublishing,London,UK.