Behavior and Environment: The Use of Space by Animals and Men PDF
Preview Behavior and Environment: The Use of Space by Animals and Men
BEHAVIOR AND ENVIRONMENT The Use of Space by Animals and Men BEHAVIOR AND ENVIRONMENT The Use of Space by Animals and Men Proceedings of an International Symposium held at the 1968 meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Dallas, Texas Edited by Aristide H. Esser Letchworth Village Thiells, New York 9:? PLENUM PRESS • NEW YORK-LONDON • 1971 First Printing - January 1971 Second Printing - February 1972 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 73-142038 ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-1895-8 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-1893-4 DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4684-1893-4 © 1971 Plenum Press, New York Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1971 A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation 227 West 17th Street, New York, N. Y. 10011 United Kingdom edition published by Plenum Press, London A Division of Plenum Publishing Company, Ltd. Donington House, 30 Norfolk Street, London W.C. 2, England All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without written permission from the publisher Preface The International Symposium on "The Use of Space by Animals and Men," sponsored by the Animal Behavior Society, took place at the 135th Annual Meeting of the AAAS in Dallas, Texas, on December 29-31, 1968. This book presents the text of all papers and edited discus sions, as well as the contributions made by several individuals who were unable ·to attend the Symposium. The idea of holding the Symposium evolved following my presenta tion of a paper to the Animal Behavior Society in 1965 [2] on the use of space by psychiatric patients. Members in attendance at that ses sion, chaired by G. Gottlieb, shared his interest in my compilation of human data presented in a measurable spatial context. This plea sant experience persuaded me that a discussion of space might be shared as a frame of reference which could open avenues of communica tion between behavioral scientists, the design community, and the de cision makers in our society. Conceptual dichotomies in the study of behavior give rise to many interpretational difficulties and misunderstandings between bio logical, psychological and sociological disciplines. The science and technology of human life is not enhanced by narrow conceptualizations such as animal vs. human behavior, naturalistic observation vs. labo ratory experiment, or innate mechanism vs. learned adaptation. At tempts are made regularly to reconcile these dichotomies with compre hensive theories intended to provide generally acceptable frameworks for productive' communication. I tried to bypass discussion of dichoto mies by establishing a setting that would encourage a mutual willing ness among the investigators to listen to each other. The Symposium would be a "neutral" ground with appeal to representatives of factions who ordinarily would have little opportunity to meet for an open ex change of ideas. The use we make of 'the space we live in provides us with an as yet uncontested ground full of common, implicitly recog nized but ill-defined problems in which scientists of all disciplines feel a keen involvement. This proved to be the case. With very few exceptions, the sci entists who had been invited were in agreement with the format and expressed a willingness to participate. The participants selected were chosen primarily for their firsthand research experience with projects involving spatial behavioral parameters. Other bases of v 'Ii PREFACE selection were: study objectives, scientific disciplines and geo graphical background. It was stipulated that formal presentations would have to deal preponderantly with data derived from observations on natural behavior. Subsequent discussions would stress experimental and cultural influences [3]. It was fully recognized that the Symposium would be merely an initial chapter in the discussions on the myriad aspects of the use of space. It was believed impossible to include topics such as the nature of the experience of space or its relation with time; the hu man transaction involved in the symbolic representations of space; the occupation of space by species other than birds and mammals; and a host of various other considerations. Some inroads have been made into the study of the use of space and certain directions of research are now visible. In the first place, the meetings have emphasized the multidisciplinary character of this investigation and the necessity for consciously choosing this approach. The contributions by J.B. Calhoun and A.H. Esser plead for an integration of findings from many scientific areas. It is becoming clear that we are witnessing the emergence of a social biology which has, in effect, a behavioral systems approach. Its growth is spurred predominantly by data which, in past decades, were within the domain of either ethology, ecology, or social psychology. Social biology can now be said to deal with the evolutionary processes of group-living animals. J.B. Calhoun stresses the role that space plays in determining the manners of group-living individuals: a par ticularly striking and mysterious example of this process is demon strated in his experiments in which the initial number of animals inhabiting a place determines the final number of animals living when the population reaches equilibrium. The test postulating a group toxicity effect (differing reactions noted when a drug is administered to an animal living alone or in a group [1]) illustrates another mys terious property of group living. These seemingly unrelated facts may become organized into a concept which is able to explain why liv ing in groups is advantageous to the evolution of many species, in cluding man. In his lecture in the Frontiers of Science series, J.B. Calhoun illuminated the important ancillary roles of many disciplines in constructing this concept, a major strategy of Life. In point of fact, the multidisciplinary discussions during the Symposium proved that many previous restrictive uses of such concepts as territoriality and dominance are obsolete. For instance, the contributions of P. Ley hausen, G. McBride and V.C. Wynne-Edwards lead from these immediately visible components to an ultimate system structuring our life. In the second place, an important contribution to the meeting centered around the derailments in the quality of life subjected to the constraints of the environment. K. Myers et al. offer much new experimental information on the biological effects resulting from different population densities. Supplementary reports and the dis- PREFACE vii cussions presented during Sessions 3 and 5 added further material and highlighted again the need of an interdisciplinary interpretation of such social factors as density and crowding. Although man's cultural history has dealt. in some manner. with the various aspects of these problems. it must be emphasized that the technical solutions at our disposal to date are completely unsatisfactory; man must ~ind radical ly different ways of relating to physical and conceptual space. In the third place. much time was spent discussing the manner in which animals and man overcome spatial constraints or use the en vironment itself in communication. E.T. Hall and I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt provided, in their discussions, new insights into the heritage of hu man understanding, at the group level as well as at the individual level. It is important to know how man can use available information in seeking new avenues toward the compassionate understanding of his fellow man. Methodological prejudice in this specific area not only acts to the detriment of the scientific disciplines involved, but di rectly affects man's relation to ~. It may be said, in conclusion, that the Symposium increased our interest in methodology; stress was placed on the importance of ap plying newly available techniques for data collection and analysis, and in adopting approaches recently introduced in other disciplines. Investigators, such as J.R. Tester, D.B. Siniff and C.R. Jensen dis cussed electronic data processing applied to the animal's use of space. Other important innovations, particularly techniques for the notoriously difficult observations of man, were represented in the photographic techniques of R.E. Herron, E.T. Hall and I. Eibl-Eibes feldt; and the observation methods discussed by I. Altman and R. Som mer. The ultimate importance of the Symposium is achieved in the actual meeting of the minds on this important issue and the realiza tion that a parochial approach no longer satisfies the requirements for an understanding of behavior. An immediate outcome of the mutual interactions which entered into play at the Symposium is to be found in the correspondence between K.R. Barbehenn and P. Leyhausen, which began immediately after the meetings and is published here. We look forward to more of these dialogues, since so many participants dis covered, to their amazement and pleasure, that they got along well with each other. This was beyond expectation and it augurs well for future multidisciplinary meetings. The travel and maintenance of the foreign participants of the Symposium was made possible by the generous contributions of my friend Dr. M. Thorner, the Schering Corporation of Bloomfield, New Jersey, the Population Council and the Psychiatric Research Founda tion, both of New York. Miss Ellen Samson has been of great help throughout all the phases of this Symposium. The administrative as sistance of the Animal Behavior Society and the American Association viii PREFACE for the Advancement of Science, especially Dr. W.G. Berl and Mr. D. Thornhill, was deeply appreciated. Mrs. Harriet Goldstein was in valuable in the final preparation of this book. Dr. Virginia Han non and Mrs. Lois Cohan offered important assistance in preparing the bibliographies and proofreading. Mr. N. Lambert prepared the illustrations, Miss S. Florentine helped in editorial research and Mrs. L. Bodnar assisted with typing. I thank all the Symposium participants for their fine cooperation and the generosity of their contributions. I thank my wife, Ada, for the constancy of her assistance to the Symposium and to the preparation of this book. Aristide Henri Esser Symposium Organizer New City, New York April 69-August 70 REFERENCES 1. Chance, M.R.A.: Aggregation as a factor influencing the toxicity of sympathomimetic amines in mice. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap., 87:214-219, 1946. 2. Esser, A.H.: Social contact and the use of space in psychiatric patients. l32nd AAAS Meeting, Berkeley, 1965. 3. The use of space by animals and man. Science, 162:700-702, 1968. Contents PREFACE, Aristide H. Esser •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• v CONTRIBUTORS •••••••.•••• xii i 0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 •• CONFERENCE PICTURE .............. xvii 0 ................ " 0 ...... " • 0 0 0 " 0 0 0 •• SESSION I: TERRITORIALITY AND DOMINANCE THE IMPORTANCE OF DEFINING SPATIAL BEHAVIORAL PARAMETERS..... 1 A. H. Esser TEN PHASES OF THE ANIMAL PATH: BEHAVIOR IN FAMILIAR SITUATIONS. • . . .. . • • . • . . . • . • • • . . . . • . . • • . . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 9 F. Fischer DOMINANCE AND TERRITORIALITY AS COMPLEMENTED IN MAMMALIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE........................................... 22 P. Leyhausen PREPARED CONTRIBUTIONS FOR DISCUSSION OF SESSION I Social Organization and Community Composition........... 34 K. Barbehenn Answer to Barbehenn..................................... 35 P. Leyhausen Is Territoriality Definable?........................... 36 H. Kaufmann Social Organization in a Laboratory Colony of Wood Rats (Neotoma Fuscipes)........................................................ 40 K. P. Kinsey DISCUSSION OF SESSION I Panel: C.C. Carpenter (Chairman), R. Ardrey, J.L. Brereton, K.P. Kinsey, P. Leyhausen, R.S. Peterson 46 ix CONTENTS SESSION II: SPACE AND CONTACT BEHAVIOR THEORIES OF ANIMAL SPACING: THE ROLE OF FLIGHT, FIGHT AND DISTAN'CE............................................. 53 SOCI~ G. McBride INTER-ANIMAL CONTROL OF SPACE ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 69 J. L. Brereton SPACING AS AFFECTED BY TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOR, HABITAT AND NUTRITION IN RED GROUSE (LAGOPUS I. SCOTICUS) .•..•......•••• 92 A. Watson and R. Moss PREPARED CONTRIBUTIONS FOR DISCUSSION OF SESSION II Intergroup Relations in Rhesus Monkeys (Macacca Mulat ta) • • . • . • • . • . • . . • • • • • • . • • • . . • . • . . • . • . • . • . . • . • • . . .. 112 H. M. Marsden The Regulation of Territorial Marking in the Mongolian Gerbil (Meriones Unguicu1atus) ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 113 D. D. Thiessen Mapping of Human Movement ••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 115 R. E. Herron Use of Telemetry As A Means of Studying Spacing and Behavior of Animals •........•.••.•.•.••.•.•••..••...•.. 117 J. R. Tester, D. B. Siniff and C. R. Jessen DISCUSSION OF SESSION II Panel: J.A. Lloyd (Chairman), S.A. Altmann, E.M. Banks, G. ~Bride, H.M. Marsden, E.W. Menzel, W. Sheppe, J.G. Vandenbergh 121 SESSION III: POPULATION DENSITY AND CROWDING PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CONTINUED CROWDING ••••••••••••••••••• 133 D. E. Davis THE EFFECTS OF VARYING DENSITY AND SPACE ON SOCIALITY AND HEAL TH IN ANlMA.LS........................................... 148 K. Myers, C. S. Hale, R. Mykytowycz and R. L. Hughes BEHAVIOR UNDER INVOLUNTARY CONFINEMENT •••••••••••••••••••••••• 188 H. F. Ellenberger CONTENTS xi PREPARED CONTRIBUTIONS FOR DISCUSSION OF SESSION III Social Stimulus and Metabolism of the Brain •••••••••••••• 204 B. L. Welch DISCUSSION OF SESSION III Panel: C. H. Southwick (Chairman), J. L. Brereton, J. B. Calhoun, D. E. Davis, H. F. Ellenberger, F. Geh1bach, G. Morgan, U. Olin 208 SESSION IV: ORIENTATION AND COMMUNICATION THE ROLE OF ORIENTING BEHAVIOR IN HUMAN INTERACTION ••••••••••• 217 M. von Cranach TRANSCULTURAL PATTERNS OF RITUALIZED CONTACT BEHAVIOR ••••••••• 238 I. Eib1-Eibesfe1dt ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNICATION ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 247 E. T. Hall DISCUSSION OF SESSION IV Panel: W. A. Mason (Chairman), I. Eib1-Eibesfe1dt, J. M. Fitch, E. T. Hall, P. Leyhausen, D. Lowenthal 257 SESSION V: COMMUNAL BEHAVIOR AND THE ENVIRONMENT SPACE USE AND THE SOCIAL COMMUNITY IN ANIMALS AND MEN ••••••••• 267 V. C. Wynne-Edwards SPATIAL PARAMETERS IN NATURALISTIC SOCIAL RESEARca •••••••••••• 281 R. Sommer ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF INTERPERSONAL FUNCTIONING ••••••••••••••• 291 1. Altman PREPARED CONTRIBUTIONS FOR DISCUSSION OF SESSION V Significance of the Ipsefact ••••••••••••••••• ". • • • • • • • • • •• 307 R. Audy Community Control Over Space and Population •••••••••••••• 309 G. Morgan DISCUSSION OF SESSION V Panel: D. Lowenthal (Chairman), J. B. Calhoun, K. H. Craik, J. M. Fitch, U. Olin, R. G. Studer, et a1. 312
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