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BASIC ELECTRONICS About the Author Ravish Aradhya H V is currently working as Associate Professor in the Electronics & Communication Engineering Department at RV College of Engineering, Bangalore, one of the most reputed engineering colleges in India. The Electronics & Communication Engineering Department at RV College of Engineering is the most sought-after branch among the student community, particularly among those appearing for CET (Common Entrance Test) in Karnataka. The author has been associated with this premier institution for the past 18 years. With a vast teaching experience spanning 22 years, the author has understood the basic needs of students in learning technology. He has set up various laboratories like Digital Circuits Lab, Microprocessors Lab, Microcontrollers Lab, Computer Communication Networks Lab, Analog Circuits Lab and prepared study material for these subjects in the department. He received the “BEST TEACHER” award for Excellence in Teaching from CAREER LAUNCHER (India), Ltd. Prof. Aradhya headed the Computer Organisation team in Visweswaraiah Technological University’s EDUSAT programme. He has a very rich experience in teaching students at various levels because of his opportunities as a visiting faculty to prestigious organisations like C-DAC, Honeywel (India), Manipal University of Advanced Studies, and University Visveswaraiah College of Engineering. He is a member of Board Of Studies (BOS) at RV Autonomous Institution; Board Of Examiners (BOE) at RV Autonomous Institution, IETE, New Delhi, and various other institutions. He is a life member of professional organisations like Indian Society for Technical Education (ISTE) and Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers (IETE). Prof. Aradhya’s research area is low-power VLSI design and he has submitted his research thesis on Reversible Logic Design to Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU), Belgaum, Karnataka, for evaluation. The author, to his credit, has presented papers in 11 international and 17 national conferences. He has guided a number of postgraduate and undergraduate projects, and also several projects executed by his students for various reputed organisations like ISRO, INTEL, TI, ADA, ADE, BEL, NAL, etc. His areas of interest include Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, VLSI Design, Microprocessor and Microcontroller Applications, Embedded Systems and Computer Networking. BASIC ELECTRONICS Ravish Aradhya H V Associate Professor Electronics and Communication Engineering Department RV College of Engineering, Bangalore McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited NEW DELHI McGraw Hill Education Ofﬁces New Delhi New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogotá Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited P-24, Green Park Extension, New Delhi 110 016 Basic Electronics Copyright © 2013, by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY, 10020 including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. McGraw Hill Education (India) Edition 2013 ISBN-13: 978-0-07-133310-8 ISBN-10: 0-07-133310-X Vice President and Managing Director: Ajay Shukla Head—Higher Education (Publishing and Marketing): Vibha Mahajan Publishing Manager (SEM & Tech. Ed.): Shalini Jha Editorial Executive: Koyel Ghosh Manager—Production Systems: Satinder S Baveja Assistant Manager—Editorial Services: Sohini Mukherjee Senior Production Executive: Suhaib Ali Assistant General Manager (Marketing)—Higher Education: Vijay Sarathi Senior Product Specialist: Tina Jajoriya Senior Graphic Designer—Cover: Meenu Raghav General Manager—Production: Rajender P Ghansela Manager—Production: Reji Kumar Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw Hill Education (India), from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw Hill Education (India) and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. Typeset at The Composers, 260, C.A. Apt., Paschim Vihar, New Delhi 110 063 and printed at Cover Printer: ** Contents 1. Semiconductor Physics and PN Junction 1 1.1 Introduction—Electronics and its Evolution 2 1.2 Atomic Structure 3 1.3 Covalent Bonding 5 1.4 Energy-Band Diagrams 7 1.5 Semiconductor Materials 10 1.6 Semiconductor Junction Diode 16 1.7 Diode Breakdown and Current Equation 20 1.8 Diode Equivalent Circuits 29 1.9 Transition and Diffusion Capacitance 32 1.10 Diode as a Switch and Reverse Recovery Time 33 1.11 Diode Specification Sheets 34 1.12 Diode Testing 34 1.13 Other Diodes 35 Summary 41 Review Questions 43 Exercise Problems 44 Multiple-Choice Questions 46 2. Diode Applications 512 2.1 Introduction 52 2.2 Power-Supply Block Diagram 52 2.3 Load Line Analysis 54 2.4 Rectifiers: Half-Wave Rectifier 56 2.5 Rectifiers: Centre-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier 63 2.6 Rectifiers: Bridge-Type Full-Wave Rectifier 71 2.7 Filters:RLC Filters 79 2.8 Regulators 84 2.9 Voltage-Multiplier Circuits 90 2.10 Clipping Circuits 93 2.11 Clamping Circuits 95 Summary 100 Review Questions 101 Exercise Problems 102 Multiple-Choice Questions 105 3. Bipolar Junction Transistors 1093 3.1 Introduction 110 3.2 Transistor Construction and Operation 112 3.3 Transistor Configurations 114 3.4 Transistor as an Amplifier 122 3.5 Transistor Specification Sheet 124 3.6 Transistor Testing 126 3.7 Introduction to BJT Biasing 127 3.8 Load-Line Analysis and Operating Point 128 3.9 Two-Battery Bias Configuration 130 3.10 Fixed-Bias Configuration 131 3.11 Feedback-Bias Configuration 133 3.12 Self-Bias or Emitter-Bias Configuration 135 3.13 Voltage Divider-Bias Configuration 137 3.14 Bias Compensation 140 3.15 Emitter-Follower Configuration 142 3.16 Transistor as a Switch 143 Summary 145 Review Questions 146 Exercise Problems 147 Multiple-Choice Questions 151 4. BJT Amplifiers, Feedback and Oscillators 1554 4.1 Introduction 156 4.2 Amplifier Basics 156 4.3 Amplifier Classification 156 4.4 Amplifier Frequency Response 172 4.5 Multistage Amplifiers and Coupling 172 4.6 RC Coupled Amplifier 174 4.7 Feedback in Amplifiers 176 4.8 Advantages of Negative Feedback 180 4.9 Analysis of Amplifiers 182 4.10 Principle of Sinusoidal Oscillators 183 4.11 RC Phase-shift Oscillator 185 4.12 Wein Bridge Oscillator 185 4.13 Hartley Oscillator and Colpitts Oscillator 186 4.14 Crystal Oscillator 188 Summary 191 Review Questions 192 Exercise Problems 193 Multiple-Choice Questions 194 vi Contents 5. Communication Systems 1995 5.1 Introduction 200 5.2 Communication System 200 5.3 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 203 5.4 Angle Modulation 213 5.5 Demodulation Techniques 219 5.6 Radio Transmitter 221 5.7 Radio Receiver 222 5.8 Television System 225 Summary 227 Review Questions 228 Exercise Problems 229 Multiple-Choice Questions 230 6. Linear Integrated Circuits 2356 6.1 Introduction 236 6.2 Differential Amplifier Circuit 236 6.3 Op-Amp Characteristics 243 6.4 Op-Amp Specifications 248 6.5 Op-Amp Equivalent Circuit 249 6.6 Op-Amp Inverter 250 6.7 Op-Amp Non-Inverter 253 6.8 Op-Amp Buffer or Voltage Follower 255 6.9 Op-Amp Summer or Summing Amplifier 256 6.10 Op-Amp Integrator 259 6.11 Op-Amp Differentiator 260 6.12 Op-Amp Subtractor or Difference Amplifier 262 6.13 Instrumentation Amplifier 263 6.14 Op-Amp Comparator 265 6.15 Op-Amp Schmitt Trigger 269 6.16 Active Filters 271 6.17 Timer-555 279 6.18 PLL-565 284 Summary 287 Review Questions 288 Exercise Problems 289 Multiple-Choice Questions 292 7. Digital Electronics 297 7.1 Introduction 298 7.2 Number Systems 300 7.3 Number Base Conversions 306 7.4 Addition and Subtraction 312 7.5 Basic Logic Gates 314 7.6 Universal Logic Gates 319 7.7 Boolean Postulates 323 Contents vii 7.8 De Morgan’s Theorems 325 7.9 Simplification of Boolean Switching Functions 326 7.10 Combinational and Sequential Circuits 331 7.11 Arithmetic Circuits 332 7.12 Latches and Flip-Flops 336 7.13 Counters 345 7.14 Shift Registers 349 Summary 353 Review Questions 354 Exercise Problems 355 Multiple-Choice Questions 357 8. Measuring Instruments 365 8.1 Introduction 366 8.2 Voltage Measurement 367 8.3 Current Measurement 369 8.4 Rectifier-Type Voltmeter 371 8.5 Multimeters 372 8.6 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 375 8.7 Lissajous Figures 383 8.8 Dual Trace Oscilloscope 387 Summary 388 Review Questions 388 Exercise Problems 389 Multiple-Choice Questions 390 9. Transducers 393 9.1 Introduction 394 9.2 Classification of Transducers 397 9.3 Capacitive Transducers 398 9.4 Inductive Transducers 399 9.5 Linearly Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) 400 9.6 Potentiometric Transducer 401 9.7 Piezoelectric Transducer 402 9.8 Electrical Strain Gauges 403 9.9 Thermistors, Thermocouples and Hall Effect 405 Summary 411 Review Questions 412 Exercise Problems 412 Multiple-Choice Questions 413 10. Field Effect Transistors and Other Devices 419 10.1 Introduction 420 10.2 Field Effect Transistors (FETs) 420 10.3 MOSFETs 440 10.4 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) 450 10.5 UniJunction Transistor (UJT) 455 viii Contents 10.6 Other Special Devices 460 Summary 464 Review Questions 465 Exercise Problems 467 Multiple-Choice Questions 469 Question Bank Additional Solved Examples 477 Quiz Questions (Short-Answer Questions) 519 Appendix A: Some Important Tables 551 Appendix B: Some Important Inventions 555 Index 557 Contents ix