Table Of Content

W ASM Handbook Volume 06A Welding Fundamentals and Processes Preparedunderthedirectionofthe ASMInternationalHandbookCommittee Volume Editors Thomas J. Lienert, Los Alamos National Laboratory Sudarsanam Suresh Babu, The Ohio State University Thomas A. Siewert, National Institute of Standards and Technology (retired) Viola L. Acoff, The University of Alabama Division Editors Chris Conrady, Edison Welding Institute; John Elmer, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Jerry Gould, Edison Welding Institute; Patrick Hochanadel, Los Alamos National Laboratory Kenn Lachenberg, Sciaky Inc.; Leijun Li, Utah State University; Howard Ludewig, Caterpillar Inc. Bruce Madigan, Montana Tech of The University of Montana; Muralidhar Tumuluru, US Steel Corporation Norman Y. Zhou, University of Waterloo ASM International Staff Eileen DeGuire, Senior Content Developer; Steve Lampman, Content Developer Susan Sellers, Editorial Assistant; Ann Britton, Editorial Assistant Madrid Tramble, Senior Production Coordinator; Patty Conti, Production Coordinator Diane Whitelaw, Production Coordinator; Scott D. Henry, Senior Manager, Content Development Bonnie R. Sanders, Manager of Production Editorial Assistance Elizabeth Marquard Beverly Musgrove Buz Riley Materials Park, Ohio 44073-0002 www.asminternational.org Copyright#2011 by ASMInternationalW Allrightsreserved Nopartofthisbookmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical, photocopying,recording,orotherwise,withoutthewrittenpermissionofthecopyrightowner. Firstprinting,November2011 Thisbookisacollectiveeffortinvolvinghundredsoftechnicalspecialists.Itbringstogetherawealthofinformationfromworldwidesources tohelpscientists,engineers,andtechnicianssolvecurrentandlong-rangeproblems. GreatcareistakeninthecompilationandproductionofthisVolume,butitshouldbemadeclearthatNOWARRANTIES,EXPRESSOR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publicationalone. This publicationis intended for use by personshavingtechnicalskill,attheirsolediscretionandrisk.SincetheconditionsofproductormaterialuseareoutsideofASM’scontrol, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind, whether as to products or informationinthispublication,andwhetherornotbasedonnegligence,shallbegreaterinamountthanthepurchasepriceofthisproductor publication in respect of which damages are claimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REMEDY OF BUYER, AND IN NO EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL, INDIRECTOR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES WHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLIGENCE OF SUCH PARTY. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to specification is essential. Therefore, specific testing under actual conditions is recommended. Nothingcontainedinthisbookshallbeconstruedasagrantofanyrightofmanufacture,sale,use,orreproduction,inconnectionwithany method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a defenseagainstliabilityforsuchinfringement. Comments,criticisms,andsuggestionsareinvited,andshouldbeforwardedtoASMInternational. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData ASMInternational ASMHandbook Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindexes Contents:v.1.Propertiesandselection—irons,steels,andhigh-performancealloys—v.2.Propertiesandselection—nonferrousalloysandspecial- purposematerials—[etc.]—v.22B.MetalsProcessSimulation 1.Metals—Handbooks,manuals,etc.2.Metal-work—Handbooks,manuals,etc.I.ASMInternational.HandbookCommittee.II.Metals Handbook. TA459.M431990620.1’690-115 SAN:204-7586 ISBN-13:978-1-61503-133-7 ISBN-10:1-61503-133-2 ASMInternationalW MaterialsPark,OH44073-0002 www.asminternational.org PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica MultiplecopyreprintsofindividualarticlesareavailablefromTechnicalDepartment,ASMInternational. Foreword Fromtheeffortsofvolunteereditors,authors,andreviewers,thisVolume6AoftheASMHandbook series, provides updated and expanded coverage on the fundamentals and processes of welding tech- nology, research, modeling and simulation. Welding and allied joining technologies are instrumental in the modern use of materials, and the many volunteers should be proud in this work to serve engi- neers, students, technicians, researchers, and others with authoritative, reliable reference information onweldingfundamentalsandprocesses. CoverageofjoiningtechnologiescontinuestogrowintheASMHandbookseries,andthisVolumeis thefirstofseveralVolumesdevotedtothemanynewdevelopmentsofmaterialsjoining.InthisVol- ume,newcoveragereflectsthecontinuedgrowthofsolid-stateweldingprocessesandtheexpandeduse ofcomputermodelinginthesimulationofweldingprocesses.Proceduredevelopment,qualitycontrol, andprocessimprovementsarealsoemphasizedforarc,resistance,anddirected-energybeamwelding. ASMHandbooksareacornerstoneofASMInternational,andthiseffortcouldnothavebeenaccom- plishedwithoutthededicatedeffortsofmanyvolunteers.Ourthanksareextendedtotheeditors,listed onthetitlepage,andtheauthorsandreviewersgivenintheListofContributors.Wearegratefulfor thecontribution oftheirtimeandexpertise. MarkF.Smith President ASMInternational Stanley C.Theobald ManagingDirector ASMInternational iii Preface The ASM Handbook Volume 6A, Welding Fundamentals & Pro- comprehensive reference that can be of use to the diverse welding cesses, represents the first of at least two volumes to be published on community. aspects of welding and joining. As indicated in the title, Volume 6A All sectionsof thehandbook have been reviewed to be sure that they focuses on fundamental aspects of welding, and on the many welding reflect the current status of the technology. Many sections have been processes. Volume 6B, planned for future publication, will concentrate expanded, such as the sections on fundamentals, high-energy density, onweldabilityandbehaviorofarangeofalloysandmaterials. solid-state welding and especially weld modeling. New processes and process variations developedsince thelastprintingofthisVolumehave As with the last edition of this Volume, the Volume Editors been incorporated, including friction stir welding, magnetic pulse weld- recognized that the researchers, engineers, technicians and students ing, hybrid processes, direct metal deposition, penetration enhancing that will use this handbook have different needs with regard to their fluxesandultrasonicadditivemanufacturing.Asectiononsafepractices level of understanding. Accordingly, the sections of this handbook has alsobeenadded. fall into two major categories. The sections on fundamentals provide in-depth background on the scientific principles associated with We wish to thank our many colleagues who served as section editors welding,whilethesectionsonthevariousweldingprocessestakeamore and authors of the individual articles. This handbook would not have practical approach. The Volume Editors have also tried to present a beenpossible withouttheirefforts. ThomasJ.Lienert,Los AlamosNationalLaboratory SudarsanamSureshBabu,TheOhioStateUniversity ThomasA.Siewert,NIST(retired) ViolaL.Acoff,TheUniversityofAlabama v Contents Fundamentals ofWelding . .... .... .... .... ..... .... ... 1 MassTransfer .................................. 83 ProcedureDevelopment............................ 85 AnOverview of JoiningProcesses FluidFlowPhenomenaduringWelding RobertW.Messler,Jr.,.............................. 3 W.Zhang ........................................ 89 Need forJoining.................................. 3 MassTransport intheArc.......................... 89 ForcesandInteractions inMaterials Joining .............. 4 GasTungstenArcWelding ......................... 89 MechanicalJoining—Fastening andIntegral Deep-PenetrationElectronBeamandLaserWelds......... 92 Attachment.................................... 5 GasMetalArcWelding............................ 93 AdhesiveBonding ................................ 6 SubmergedArc Welding........................... 94 Welding........................................ 7 TransportEquationsforWeldFluidFlow............... 94 Brazing andSoldering.............................. 9 ConcludingRemarks.............................. 94 VariantandHybrid Processes........................ 10 Fundamentals ofWeldSolidification General DesignAspects............................ 10 John N.DuPont................................... 96 Summary...................................... 11 MicrostructuralFeatures inFusionWelds ............... 96 OverviewofWeldingProcesses SolidificationParameters........................... 97 RobertW.Messler,Jr.,.............................. 13 NucleationConsiderations inFusionWelding ............ 97 ClassificationofWeldingProcesses ................... 13 GrainStructure ofFusionWelds ..................... 99 ChemicallyDrivenFusionWelding ................... 14 SubstructureFormationinFusionWelds............... 100 ElectricArcFusionWelding ........................ 16 RapidSolidificationConsiderations................... 111 Directed-Energy FusionWeldingProcesses.............. 21 DilutioninFusionWelding Nonfusion(Solid-State) WeldingProcesses.............. 24 John N.DuPont.................................. 115 Brazing andSoldering............................. 25 Introduction................................... 115 Dilutionand FusionZoneComposition................ 115 InfluenceofWeldingParameters onDilution............ 117 FundamentalsofFusionWelding....................... 27 InfluenceofDilutiononFusion-ZoneMicrostructureand WeldingProcessFundamentals Properties................................... 119 ThomasW.EagarandAaronD.Mazzeo.................. 29 Solid-StateTransformations inWeldments Energy-Source Intensity. ........................... 29 MehranMaalekian ......................................... 122 Characterization andModelingoftheHeatSource SpecialFactorsAffectingTransformationBehaviorin S.S.Glickstein, E.Friedman,andR.P.Martukanitz .......... 35 aWeldment ................................. 122 SimplifiedModelingoftheHeatSource ................ 36 Heat-AffectedZone ofaSingle-PassWeld ............. 123 ArcWelding ................................... 36 FusionZoneofaSingle-PassWeld .................. 129 High-Energy-DensityWelding....................... 39 Heat-AffectedZone inMultipass Weldments............ 134 Resistance SpotWelding........................... 40 FusionZoneinMultipassWeldments................. 137 Natureand BehaviorofFluxesUsedforWelding WeldmentsinSelectAlloySystems .................. 137 WesleyWangandS.Liu ............................. 43 Thermomechanical EffectsofFusionWelding EquilibriumParameters............................ 43 P.Michaleris.................................... 146 HeatFlowinFusionWelding FormationofResidualStress:Three-Bar ChonL.Tsai ..................................... 55 Analogy.................................... 146 Introduction.................................... 55 MathematicalFormulations ........................ 147 Mathematical Formulations ......................... 57 ResidualStress................................. 149 EngineeringSolutionsandEmpirical Correlation.......... 58 Distortion .................................... 151 Parametric Effects................................ 64 ResidualStresses andDistortion ThermophysicalProperties ofSelected Engineering Koichi Masubuchi................................. 158 Materials .................................... 65 FormationofResidualStresses andDistortion........... 158 FactorsInfluencingHeatFlowinFusionWelding TechniquesforMeasuringResidualStresses ............ 159 OleRunarMyhrand(cid:1)ysteinGrong..................... 67 MagnitudeandDistributionofResidualStressesin Introduction.................................... 67 Weldments.................................. 160 AnalyticalSolutionsoftheThermalFieldaroundMoving EffectsofResidual StressesandDistortionontheService PointandLineSources .......................... 68 BehaviorofWelded Structures.................... 162 Numerical andAnalyticalSolutionsoftheThermal ThermalTreatmentsofWeldments................... 165 FieldinComplexWeldingOperations................ 75 Acknowledgment ................................ 80 Fundamentals ofSolid-StateWelding................... 169 TransferofHeatandMasstotheBaseMetalinGas MetalArcWelding Mechanisms ofBondingforSolid-StateWelding IanHarris....................................... 82 Processes HeatTransfer................................... 83 Jerry E.Gould................................... 171 xi Solid-StateWeldingProcesses....................... 171 PurposeofQualification andResponsibilityfortheTask..... 260 Mechanisms ofSolid-StateBonding................... 171 Qualification ofWelding Procedures................... 260 ExtensionoftheContactingSurfaces .................. 172 Qualification ofWelding Personnel.................... 265 SeparationoftheContaminated Areas.................. 172 Qualification Documentation ........................ 265 RealignmentoftheGrainStructuresforBonding.......... 174 General DesignConsiderations forArcWeldingProcesses ThermalDissolutionofOxides/Contaminants............. 175 W.C.MohrandO.W.Blodgett........................ 266 BreakdownoftheInterfacialStructure ................. 176 Nomenclature................................... 266 ComparisonofSolid-StateBondingProcesses............ 176 TypesofJoints.................................. 266 Summary...................................... 176 TypesofWelds ................................. 267 FundamentalsofFrictionWelding WeldJointDesign ............................... 267 D.D.Kautz...................................... 179 FilletWelds.................................... 269 ProcessParameters............................... 179 GroovePreparation Welds.......................... 270 FrictionWeldingTechnology........................ 180 Groove-andFillet-WeldCombinations................. 271 Metallurgical Parameters........................... 181 EdgePreparation ................................ 271 FundamentalsofFrictionStirWelding ButtJoints..................................... 273 P.S.De,N. Kumar,J.Q.Su,andR.S.Mishra.............. 186 CornerJoints,FlangeJoints,andPlugWelds............. 274 ThermalAspects................................. 186 T-JointsandJointsforSpecificApplications............. 275 Material Flow................................... 188 JointsMadebySubmergedArcWelding................ 276 Friction....................................... 190 PowerSourcesforArcWelding Defects ....................................... 191 LeeAllgood..................................... 277 StrainandStrainRateinFSW....................... 195 PowerSourceCharacteristics........................ 277 OverallMicrostructural Feature ...................... 196 ShortArcGMAWPowerSources .................... 280 FundamentalsofUltrasonic Welding MultipleArc(MultipleOperator)PowerSources.......... 281 LeijunLiandChunbo(Sam) Zhang .................... 201 PowerSourceSelectionConsiderations................. 283 Models ....................................... 202 Arc WeldingProcessControl Results ....................................... 203 DanielA.Hartman,GeorgeE.Cook,R.BruceMadigan,and FundamentalsofSolid-StateResistance Welding DavidR.DeLapp ................................. 285 JerryE.Gould................................... 209 OverviewonWeldingProcessControl ................. 285 ProjectionWelding............................... 209 ControlSystem Requirements ....................... 285 BondingMechanisms duringSolid-State SystemParameters ............................... 286 Projection Welding ............................. 210 Sensing....................................... 287 Mechanical/Heat-Transfer Balances ................... 210 Modeling...................................... 289 EffectofSystemMechanical Dynamicson ControlofArc Welding............................ 290 Projection Welds............................... 211 ShieldingGases forArcWelding........................ 296 EffectofElectricalCharacteristics onProjection Welds ..... 213 BasicProperties ofaShieldingGas ................... 296 Geometric Effects................................ 213 ShieldingGasBlends ............................. 297 SummaryofAnalysis ............................. 215 ShieldingGasSelection............................ 297 Conclusions.................................... 215 InfluenceofShieldingGasonWeldMechanicalProperties... 300 FundamentalsofDiffusion Bonding ...................... 217 ShieldingGasand FumeGeneration................... 300 DiffusionBondingProcess.......................... 217 Self-ShieldedFluxCoredArc Welding................. 301 BondingSurfaces ContainingOxides .................. 218 Shielded MetalArcWelding Mechanism ofDiffusionBonding..................... 218 SteveKnostman .................................. 302 DiffusionBondingwithInterfaceAids ................. 220 TheSMAWProcess.............................. 302 NondestructiveEvaluationofSolid-StateWelds Applications.................................... 303 JeongNa,RogerSpencer, EvgueniTodorov,Sean Gleeson, Electrodes ..................................... 303 andPerryWhite.................................. 222 WeldSchedules andProcedures...................... 304 Nondestructive EvaluationFundamentals................ 222 VariationsoftheSMAWProcess..................... 306 ExamplesofNDEofSolid-StateWelds ................ 223 UnderwaterWelding.............................. 307 MechanicalProperties ofSoft-InterlayerSolid-StateWelds...... 230 RepairWelding ................................. 307 MicrostructureofInterlayerWelds.................... 230 SafetyConsiderations ............................. 307 TensileLoadingofSoft-InterlayerWelds ............... 231 GasMetalArcWelding ShearLoading .................................. 235 ChrisConrardy .................................. 309 MultiaxialLoading............................... 236 PrinciplesofOperation ............................ 309 EnvironmentallyInducedFailureofInterlayers ........... 236 ProcessParameters............................... 312 Consumables ................................... 313 ArcWeldingProcesses .............................. 239 Equipment..................................... 314 ProcessVariations ............................... 316 IntroductiontoArcWelding ........................... 241 SafetyConsiderations ............................. 317 ArcWeldingFundamentals ......................... 241 Plasma GasMetalArcWelding HistoricalDevelopmentofArcWelding ................ 243 IanD.Harris.................................... 318 ArcPhysicsofGasTungstenandGasMetalArcWelding Equipment..................................... 318 Y.M.Zhang ..................................... 249 Procedure ..................................... 319 GasTungstenArc Physics.......................... 249 Applications.................................... 319 GasMetalArc Physics ............................ 254 Personnel...................................... 320 QualificationofWeldingProcedures andPersonnel Hybrid LaserArc Welding HarveyR.Castner ................................ 260 BrianM.Victor .................................. 321 xii AdvantagesandLimitations........................ 321 Fixturingand ToolingforStudArcWelding............ 385 Applications andOperatingModes................... 321 Stud-WeldingQualityControl,Qualification,andInspection.. 388 ProcessDescription.............................. 322 Stud-WeldingSafety Precautions .................... 390 JointDesigns.................................. 324 CapacitorDischarge StudWelding...................... 391 EquipmentandConsumables....................... 325 Applications................................... 391 SourcesofDefects .............................. 326 Equipment.................................... 392 QualityControlandInspection...................... 327 PersonnelResponsibilities ......................... 392 Safety ....................................... 327 FluxCoredArcWelding Resistance WeldingProcesses ........................ 395 MichaelT.Merlo ................................. 329 ProcessFeatures................................ 329 IntroductiontoResistance Welding...................... 397 Applications................................... 330 TypesofResistance Welds ........................ 398 Equipment.................................... 330 Thermoelectric Effects ........................... 398 BaseMetals................................... 331 Resistance WeldingPowerSuppliesandControls Electrode Manufacture ........................... 332 DonaldF.Maatz,Jr.andTomMorrissett................ 404 Electrode Diameters ............................. 333 HeatInput.................................... 404 Electrode Classification........................... 333 Equipment.................................... 404 SubmergedArc Welding Resistance SpotWelding LeeE.Allgood................................... 335 MuraliD.Tumuluru ............................... 409 PrinciplesofOperation ........................... 335 ProcessDescription.............................. 409 ProcessApplications............................. 336 Equipment.................................... 411 Automatic SAWPowerSourceandEquipment .......... 337 MachineConstruction............................ 413 SAWFluxes. .................................. 337 WeldingElectrodes.............................. 414 Electrodes forSAW ............................. 338 EffectofSurface ConditiononWelding ............... 415 Weld-Metal Considerations ........................ 339 EvaluationMethods ............................. 416 SAWProcessParameters.......................... 339 Applications................................... 419 DefectsinSAW................................ 341 Safety ....................................... 421 TrainingandSafety ............................. 343 Projection Welding GasTungstenArcWelding WarrenPeterson.................................. 423 LeeE.Allgood................................... 344 Introduction................................... 423 Applications................................... 345 ApplicationAdvantagesandLimitations............... 425 PrincipleofOperation............................ 346 MaterialProperty Effects.......................... 426 Equipment.................................... 347 SpecificationsandRecommended Practices............. 427 GTAW WeldingProcedures........................ 351 ProcessFundamentals............................ 427 SafetyWhenUsing GTAW........................ 353 Personnel..................................... 430 Acknowledgments............................... 354 ProcessRequirements............................ 430 GasTungstenArcWelding withPenetration-Enhancing Compounds SourcesofDefects .............................. 432 IanD.Harris.................................... 355 QualityControlandInspection...................... 432 PrinciplesofOperation ........................... 355 Safety ....................................... 434 AdvantagesandDisadvantages...................... 355 Listofspecifications............................. 435 Equipment,Procedures,and Applications .............. 356 Resistance SeamWelding Personnel..................................... 357 RobertMatteson.................................. 438 PlasmaArcWelding ProcessApplications............................. 439 IanD.Harris.................................... 359 AdvantagesandLimitations........................ 439 PrinciplesofOperation ........................... 359 FundamentalsofLapSeamWelding.................. 441 AdvantagesandDisadvantages...................... 360 TypesofSeamWelds............................ 444 Equipment.................................... 360 ProcessingEquipment............................ 444 Applications................................... 361 WeldQualityandProcessControl ................... 446 TypicalComponentsandJoints ..................... 362 FlashWeldingandUpsetWelding Operations.................................... 363 R.(Bob)Matteson................................. 448 ElectroslagandElectrogasWelding Introduction................................... 448 S.D.Brandi,S.Liu,andR.D.Thomas,Jr................. 365 FlashButtWelding.............................. 448 Fundamentals oftheElectroslagProcess............... 365 UpsetWelding................................. 453 ConstitutiveEquationsforWeldingCurrent,Voltage, High-FrequencyWelding andTravel Rate .............................. 368 Menachem Kimchi ................................ 456 TemperatureRelations betweentheSlagBathand Fundamentals.................................. 457 Electrode inESW............................. 369 AdvantagesandLimitations........................ 458 ESWThermalCyclesEquations..................... 369 Applications................................... 458 ESWConsumables.............................. 370 Equipment.................................... 459 Metallurgical andChemicalReactions ................ 372 Personnel..................................... 461 ElectroslagProcessDevelopment.................... 373 Safety ....................................... 461 Electrogas Welding.............................. 374 InspectionandQuality Control...................... 461 ElectroslagandElectrogas ProcessApplications.......... 375 Procedure DevelopmentandPracticeConsiderations for ProblemsandQualityControl ...................... 376 Resistance Welding StudArcWelding.................................. 380 MuraliD.Tumuluru,HongyangZhang,andR.(Bob)Matteson.. 463 ProcessOverview............................... 380 SpotWeldingVariables........................... 463 xiii SeamWeldingProcedureDevelopment................. 473 DesignofLaser BeamWeld Joints.................... 570 NonferrousAlloys ............................... 482 LaserBeamWeld Quality.......................... 572 EvaluationandQuality ControlofResistance-Welded Joints Laser BeamDeliveryOpticsandManufacturingEconomics HongyanZhang .................................. 486 TimWebber..................................... 580 QualityAttributesofResistance Welds................. 486 OpticsforBeamDelivery .......................... 580 DestructiveTesting............................... 489 ManufacturingEconomics.......................... 583 Nondestructive Testing ............................ 495 Laser DepositionProcesses J.O.Milewski andT.Palmer......................... 587 LaserCladding.................................. 587 HighEnergyElectronBeam andLaserBeamWelding. ...... 505 Near-Net ShapeProcessing ......................... 591 Laser Weld QualityMonitoring IntroductiontoHighEnergyDensityElectronand RandolphPaura.................................. 595 LaserBeamWelding OverviewofLaser Welding......................... 595 J.W.Elmer,P.W.Hochanadel,K.Lachenberg,andT.Webber.... 507 ProcessVariables................................ 597 HistoryofElectronBeamsandLaser Beams............. 507 Real-TimeorIn-Process Monitoring................... 599 Properties ofElectronandLaser Beams ................ 509 ExamplesofLaser WeldMonitoring................... 601 ComparisonbetweenElectronandLaser Beam Laser Cutting,Drilling,andShockPeening Welding..................................... 511 CharlesCaristan ................................. 606 ElectronBeam PrinciplesofLaser-Cutting ThermalProcesses............ 606 ElectronBeamWelding PrinciplesofLaser-Drilling Processes.................. 619 P.W.Hochanadel,J.W.Elmer,K. Lachenberg,P.Burgardt, PrinciplesofLaser Shock-PeeningProcesses............. 621 andD.D.Kautz .................................. 514 MicrojoiningwithLaser andElectronBeams PrinciplesofOperation ............................ 514 GeraldA.Knorovsky............................... 625 Advantages .................................... 515 Definition—WhatIsaMicroweld?.................... 625 Limitations..................................... 516 MicroscalePhysicalPhenomena...................... 625 ProcessControl ................................. 517 ProcessDescription............................... 628 OperationSequenceandPreparation................... 517 TechniquesandApplications........................ 632 WeldGeometry ................................. 519 FutureTrends................................... 634 JointDesign.................................... 519 ElectronBeamWeldingMachines .................... 519 Safety ........................................ 520 Solid–State WeldingProcesses......................... 639 DesignConsiderationsforElectronBeamWelding KennLachenberg,PatrickHochanadel,andJohn Elmer...... 522 Procedure DevelopmentandPractice Considerationsfor WeldGeometry ................................. 522 InertiaandDirect-Drive RotaryFrictionWelding JointDesign.................................... 524 TimStotler...................................... 641 SpecialJointsandWelds........................... 526 Tooling....................................... 642 EBWinVacuum ................................ 527 ProcedureQualifications ........................... 642 EBWinNonvacuum.............................. 529 ProcessMonitoringandControlofRotaryFrictionWelding Tooling/Fixturing ................................ 531 DanielA.HartmanandThomasJ.Lienert ............... 646 WeldingofThinMetal ............................ 531 Background.................................... 646 EBWofThickMetal ............................. 532 SystemParameters ............................... 647 UseofFillerMetal............................... 533 Monitoring..................................... 648 EBWforPoorlyAccessible Joints .................... 534 Control ....................................... 652 DesignforScanning/JointTracking ................... 535 In-ProcessQualityControl.......................... 652 ElectronBeamWeldingasaRepairMethod............. 536 Development ofWeldingProceduresforFrictionStirWelding EBWProcessControlPlans,Codes,andSpecifications...... 538 KevinJ.Colligan................................. 654 NontraditionalApplicationsofElectronBeams Procedureand ProcedureDevelopmentRequirements....... 655 KennLachenberg,ScottStecker, KarenTaminger,and ProcedureDevelopment............................ 656 GaryLaFlamme ................................. 540 ProcedureQualification............................ 661 ElectronBeamNear-NetShape Processing .............. 540 FrictionStirWeldingToolDesigns Dynamic BeamDeflection Processing.................. 544 CarlD.Sorensen ................................. 664 QualityControlofElectronBeamsandWelds FrictionStir WeldingToolMaterials .................. 664 T.A.Palmer,P.W. Hochanadel,andK.Lachenberg......... 548 FrictionStir WeldingToolGeometry .................. 666 ProcessControlofEssential Variables ................. 548 PredictingandMeasuring ToolPerformance ............. 672 BeamDiagnosticToolsforDetermining BeamFocus....... 549 Summary...................................... 673 QualityControl ................................. 554 FrictionSurfacing................................... 678 LaserBeam ProcessDescription............................... 678 LaserBeamWelding Equipment..................................... 679 TimWebber, ThomasLieb,andJ.Mazumder.............. 556 Applications.................................... 679 Laser BeamWeldingAdvantagesand Limitations ......... 556 Diffusion Bonding .................................. 682 Laser BeamWeldingFundamentals andProcess ProcessVariants................................. 682 Physics...................................... 558 DiffusionBondingofMetals ........................ 683 ProcessSelection ................................ 560 DiffusionBondingofOxideCeramics (Ref46)........... 685 Healthand Safety................................ 566 ExplosionWelding LaserBeamWeld Design,Codes,andQuality Assessment StephenLiu,JohnBanker, andCurtisProthe ............. 690 J.Mazumder,TimWebber,andRandolphPaura........... 570 OverviewofProcessAttributes ...................... 690 xiv Procedure DevelopmentandPracticeConsiderations ...... 691 ModelingofThermal-Electrical-Mechanical Couplingin WeldCharacteristics............................. 695 FusionWelding ManufacturingProcessandPractice .................. 697 A.De ......................................... 789 ProductsandApplications......................... 698 ThermalAnalysis............................... 789 ForgeandCoextrusionWelding ElectricalAnalysis .............................. 790 PaulS.Korinko .................................. 701 DiscretizationofSheet-Electrode GeometryforNumerical ForgeWelding................................. 701 Modeling................................... 790 CoextrusionWelding............................. 702 In-ProcessGrowthofElectrode-SheetContact........... 790 MagneticPulseWelding IncorporationofLatentHeat ....................... 791 SachinD.Kore,J.Imbert, Y.Zhou,andM.Worswick ....... 704 EstimationofContact Resistivity.................... 791 FundamentalTheory............................. 704 ResultsandDiscussions........................... 792 Equipment.................................... 705 ModelingofMetallurgical MicrostructureEvolution in Magnetic PulseWelding Process .................... 706 FusionWelding ProcessParameters.............................. 707 Ole RunarMyhrand(cid:1)ysteinGrong.................... 797 MechanicalTesting ofMagnetic-PulsedWelds .......... 707 TheInternalStateVariableApproach................. 797 Metallurgical Characterization ofMagnetic-PulsedWelds... 707 IsokineticMicrostructureModels .................... 798 Applications................................... 708 ComplexMicrostructure ModelsDescribingtheEvolution SafetyGuidelinesWhileHandlingtheMPWSetup ....... 708 ofaParticleSizeDistribution..................... 807 Summary..................................... 709 MicrostructureModelingintheContextofEngineering ColdWelding Design..................................... 813 NielsBay....................................... 711 Acknowledgments............................... 817 BondingMechanisms andTheoretical Modelingof Numerical AspectsofModelingWelds BondStrength................................ 711 John Goldak,MahyarAsadi,andLennartKarlsson ......... 819 AlternativeMethodsofSurfacePreparation............. 712 ModelingofWelds.............................. 819 QualityControl ................................ 713 GeometryofWeldModels......................... 820 ProcessVariantsandApplications ................... 713 EnergyEquationandHeatTransfer .................. 820 RollWeldingandLaser RollWelding MicrostructureEvolution.......................... 825 MuneharuKutsuna................................ 717 ThermalStress AnalysisofWelds ................... 826 RollWelding.................................. 717 FluidFlowintheWeld Pool ....................... 827 Laser RollWelding.............................. 719 Acknowledgment ............................... 828 Laser RollWeldingofDissimilar Metals............... 720 ModelingofThermomechanical PhenomenainFusionWelding UltrasonicWelding C. Schwenk ..................................... 830 JanetDevine .................................... 725 BasicPrinciples andHeatEffectsofWelding ........... 830 EquipmentandProcessParameters................... 725 RequiredMaterial Properties andMeasurement PersonnelRequirements........................... 728 Techniques.................................. 831 Applications................................... 729 AnalysisofMaterial Properties InputData ............. 832 UltrasonicAdditive Manufacturing ExperimentalDataforValidationofThermaland KarlGraff...................................... 731 MechanicalResults............................ 834 ProcessFundamentals............................ 731 WorkflowforThermomechanicalWelding Simulation ..... 835 Applications................................... 733 EquipmentandProcedures......................... 734 Reference Information.............................. 843 Material PropertiesinUAM........................ 735 QualityControl ................................ 739 SafeWeldingPractices Safety ....................................... 740 American WeldingSociety........................... 845 SafetyManagement ............................. 845 ProtectionoftheWorkArea ....................... 846 PersonalProtectiveEquipment...................... 848 FundamentalsofWeldModeling...................... 743 ProtectionAgainstFumesandGases.................. 850 IntroductiontoIntegratedWeldModeling SafeHandlingofCompressed Gases.................. 855 SudarsanamSureshBabu ........................... 745 ProtectionAgainstElectromagnetic Radiation ........... 858 ProcessModeling............................... 746 ElectricalSafety................................ 858 MicrostructureModeling.......................... 748 FirePreventionandProtection...................... 860 Performance Modeling ........................... 754 ExplosionPrevention ............................ 861 AccessandDelivery ofIntegratedWeldProcessModels ... 756 Process-Specific SafetyConsiderations ................ 861 UseofOptimizationMethodologies .................. 758 SafetyinRoboticOperations....................... 866 ConcludingRemarks............................. 759 WeldingFuelsandShieldingGases ..................... 869 ModelingofHeatandMassTransferinFusionWelding SummaryofFusion WeldingProcesses................... 870 WeiZhang,RohitRai,AmitKumar,andIgorV.Krivtsun..... 766 Weldability ofFerrousandNonferrousAlloys.............. 874 ImportantConsiderations.......................... 766 Preheatand PostweldHeatTreatmentTemperaturesfor Mathematical Description ......................... 767 Selected Steels .................................. 878 Application toFusionWeldingProcesses .............. 775 GlossaryofTerms ................................. 882 MassTransferinWeldPool ....................... 780 Abbreviations..................................... 892 ReliabilityofModels ............................ 785 Metric ConversionGuide............................. 895 FutureModels ................................. 786 Index........................................... 897 xv Fundamentals of Welding AnOverview ofJoiningProcesses....................... 3 OverviewofWeldingProcesses........................ 13 Need forJoining................................... 3 ClassificationofWeldingProcesses ..................... 13 ForcesandInteractions inMaterialsJoining ............... 4 ChemicallyDrivenFusionWelding ..................... 14 Mechanical Joining—FasteningandIntegral Attachment....... 5 ElectricArcFusionWelding .......................... 16 AdhesiveBonding ................................. 6 Directed-EnergyFusion WeldingProcesses................ 21 Welding......................................... 7 Nonfusion(Solid-State) WeldingProcesses................ 24 Brazing andSoldering............................... 9 Brazingand Soldering............................... 25 Variantand HybridProcesses.......................... 10 General DesignAspects.............................. 10 Summary........................................ 11

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ASM Handbook, Volume 06A - Welding Fundamentals and Processes PDF

1050 Pages·2011·46.473 MB·1050\1050
by  Lienert, Thomas J., Babu, Sudarsanam Suresh, Siewert, Thomas A., Acoff, Viola L. (Eds.)
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W ASM Handbook Volume 06A Welding Fundamentals and Processes Preparedunderthedirectionofthe ASMInternationalHandbookCommittee Volume Editors Thomas J. Lienert, Los Alamos National Laboratory Sudarsanam Suresh Babu, The Ohio State University Thomas A. Siewert, National Institute of Standards and Technology (retired) Viola L. Acoff, The University of Alabama Division Editors Chris Conrady, Edison Welding Institute; John Elmer, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Jerry Gould, Edison Welding Institute; Patrick Hochanadel, Los Alamos National Laboratory Kenn Lachenberg, Sciaky Inc.; Leijun Li, Utah State University; Howard Ludewig, Caterpillar Inc. Bruce Madigan, Montana Tech of The University of Montana; Muralidhar Tumuluru, US Steel Corporation Norman Y. Zhou, University of Waterloo ASM International Staff Eileen DeGuire, Senior Content Developer; Steve Lampman, Content Developer Susan Sellers, Editorial Assistant; Ann Britton, Editorial Assistant Madrid Tramble, Senior Production Coordinator; Patty Conti, Production Coordinator Diane Whitelaw, Production Coordinator; Scott D. Henry, Senior Manager, Content Development Bonnie R. Sanders, Manager of Production Editorial Assistance Elizabeth Marquard Beverly Musgrove Buz Riley Materials Park, Ohio 44073-0002 www.asminternational.org Copyright#2011 by ASMInternationalW Allrightsreserved Nopartofthisbookmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical, photocopying,recording,orotherwise,withoutthewrittenpermissionofthecopyrightowner. Firstprinting,November2011 Thisbookisacollectiveeffortinvolvinghundredsoftechnicalspecialists.Itbringstogetherawealthofinformationfromworldwidesources tohelpscientists,engineers,andtechnicianssolvecurrentandlong-rangeproblems. GreatcareistakeninthecompilationandproductionofthisVolume,butitshouldbemadeclearthatNOWARRANTIES,EXPRESSOR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publicationalone. This publicationis intended for use by personshavingtechnicalskill,attheirsolediscretionandrisk.SincetheconditionsofproductormaterialuseareoutsideofASM’scontrol, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind, whether as to products or informationinthispublication,andwhetherornotbasedonnegligence,shallbegreaterinamountthanthepurchasepriceofthisproductor publication in respect of which damages are claimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REMEDY OF BUYER, AND IN NO EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL, INDIRECTOR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES WHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLIGENCE OF SUCH PARTY. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to specification is essential. Therefore, specific testing under actual conditions is recommended. Nothingcontainedinthisbookshallbeconstruedasagrantofanyrightofmanufacture,sale,use,orreproduction,inconnectionwithany method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a defenseagainstliabilityforsuchinfringement. Comments,criticisms,andsuggestionsareinvited,andshouldbeforwardedtoASMInternational. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData ASMInternational ASMHandbook Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindexes Contents:v.1.Propertiesandselection—irons,steels,andhigh-performancealloys—v.2.Propertiesandselection—nonferrousalloysandspecial- purposematerials—[etc.]—v.22B.MetalsProcessSimulation 1.Metals—Handbooks,manuals,etc.2.Metal-work—Handbooks,manuals,etc.I.ASMInternational.HandbookCommittee.II.Metals Handbook. TA459.M431990620.1’690-115 SAN:204-7586 ISBN-13:978-1-61503-133-7 ISBN-10:1-61503-133-2 ASMInternationalW MaterialsPark,OH44073-0002 www.asminternational.org PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica MultiplecopyreprintsofindividualarticlesareavailablefromTechnicalDepartment,ASMInternational. Foreword Fromtheeffortsofvolunteereditors,authors,andreviewers,thisVolume6AoftheASMHandbook series, provides updated and expanded coverage on the fundamentals and processes of welding tech- nology, research, modeling and simulation. Welding and allied joining technologies are instrumental in the modern use of materials, and the many volunteers should be proud in this work to serve engi- neers, students, technicians, researchers, and others with authoritative, reliable reference information onweldingfundamentalsandprocesses. CoverageofjoiningtechnologiescontinuestogrowintheASMHandbookseries,andthisVolumeis thefirstofseveralVolumesdevotedtothemanynewdevelopmentsofmaterialsjoining.InthisVol- ume,newcoveragereflectsthecontinuedgrowthofsolid-stateweldingprocessesandtheexpandeduse ofcomputermodelinginthesimulationofweldingprocesses.Proceduredevelopment,qualitycontrol, andprocessimprovementsarealsoemphasizedforarc,resistance,anddirected-energybeamwelding. ASMHandbooksareacornerstoneofASMInternational,andthiseffortcouldnothavebeenaccom- plishedwithoutthededicatedeffortsofmanyvolunteers.Ourthanksareextendedtotheeditors,listed onthetitlepage,andtheauthorsandreviewersgivenintheListofContributors.Wearegratefulfor thecontribution oftheirtimeandexpertise. MarkF.Smith President ASMInternational Stanley C.Theobald ManagingDirector ASMInternational iii Preface The ASM Handbook Volume 6A, Welding Fundamentals & Pro- comprehensive reference that can be of use to the diverse welding cesses, represents the first of at least two volumes to be published on community. aspects of welding and joining. As indicated in the title, Volume 6A All sectionsof thehandbook have been reviewed to be sure that they focuses on fundamental aspects of welding, and on the many welding reflect the current status of the technology. Many sections have been processes. Volume 6B, planned for future publication, will concentrate expanded, such as the sections on fundamentals, high-energy density, onweldabilityandbehaviorofarangeofalloysandmaterials. solid-state welding and especially weld modeling. New processes and process variations developedsince thelastprintingofthisVolumehave As with the last edition of this Volume, the Volume Editors been incorporated, including friction stir welding, magnetic pulse weld- recognized that the researchers, engineers, technicians and students ing, hybrid processes, direct metal deposition, penetration enhancing that will use this handbook have different needs with regard to their fluxesandultrasonicadditivemanufacturing.Asectiononsafepractices level of understanding. Accordingly, the sections of this handbook has alsobeenadded. fall into two major categories. The sections on fundamentals provide in-depth background on the scientific principles associated with We wish to thank our many colleagues who served as section editors welding,whilethesectionsonthevariousweldingprocessestakeamore and authors of the individual articles. This handbook would not have practical approach. The Volume Editors have also tried to present a beenpossible withouttheirefforts. ThomasJ.Lienert,Los AlamosNationalLaboratory SudarsanamSureshBabu,TheOhioStateUniversity ThomasA.Siewert,NIST(retired) ViolaL.Acoff,TheUniversityofAlabama v Contents Fundamentals ofWelding . .... .... .... .... ..... .... ... 1 MassTransfer .................................. 83 ProcedureDevelopment............................ 85 AnOverview of JoiningProcesses FluidFlowPhenomenaduringWelding RobertW.Messler,Jr.,.............................. 3 W.Zhang ........................................ 89 Need forJoining.................................. 3 MassTransport intheArc.......................... 89 ForcesandInteractions inMaterials Joining .............. 4 GasTungstenArcWelding ......................... 89 MechanicalJoining—Fastening andIntegral Deep-PenetrationElectronBeamandLaserWelds......... 92 Attachment.................................... 5 GasMetalArcWelding............................ 93 AdhesiveBonding ................................ 6 SubmergedArc Welding........................... 94 Welding........................................ 7 TransportEquationsforWeldFluidFlow............... 94 Brazing andSoldering.............................. 9 ConcludingRemarks.............................. 94 VariantandHybrid Processes........................ 10 Fundamentals ofWeldSolidification General DesignAspects............................ 10 John N.DuPont................................... 96 Summary...................................... 11 MicrostructuralFeatures inFusionWelds ............... 96 OverviewofWeldingProcesses SolidificationParameters........................... 97 RobertW.Messler,Jr.,.............................. 13 NucleationConsiderations inFusionWelding ............ 97 ClassificationofWeldingProcesses ................... 13 GrainStructure ofFusionWelds ..................... 99 ChemicallyDrivenFusionWelding ................... 14 SubstructureFormationinFusionWelds............... 100 ElectricArcFusionWelding ........................ 16 RapidSolidificationConsiderations................... 111 Directed-Energy FusionWeldingProcesses.............. 21 DilutioninFusionWelding Nonfusion(Solid-State) WeldingProcesses.............. 24 John N.DuPont.................................. 115 Brazing andSoldering............................. 25 Introduction................................... 115 Dilutionand FusionZoneComposition................ 115 InfluenceofWeldingParameters onDilution............ 117 FundamentalsofFusionWelding....................... 27 InfluenceofDilutiononFusion-ZoneMicrostructureand WeldingProcessFundamentals Properties................................... 119 ThomasW.EagarandAaronD.Mazzeo.................. 29 Solid-StateTransformations inWeldments Energy-Source Intensity. ........................... 29 MehranMaalekian ......................................... 122 Characterization andModelingoftheHeatSource SpecialFactorsAffectingTransformationBehaviorin S.S.Glickstein, E.Friedman,andR.P.Martukanitz .......... 35 aWeldment ................................. 122 SimplifiedModelingoftheHeatSource ................ 36 Heat-AffectedZone ofaSingle-PassWeld ............. 123 ArcWelding ................................... 36 FusionZoneofaSingle-PassWeld .................. 129 High-Energy-DensityWelding....................... 39 Heat-AffectedZone inMultipass Weldments............ 134 Resistance SpotWelding........................... 40 FusionZoneinMultipassWeldments................. 137 Natureand BehaviorofFluxesUsedforWelding WeldmentsinSelectAlloySystems .................. 137 WesleyWangandS.Liu ............................. 43 Thermomechanical EffectsofFusionWelding EquilibriumParameters............................ 43 P.Michaleris.................................... 146 HeatFlowinFusionWelding FormationofResidualStress:Three-Bar ChonL.Tsai ..................................... 55 Analogy.................................... 146 Introduction.................................... 55 MathematicalFormulations ........................ 147 Mathematical Formulations ......................... 57 ResidualStress................................. 149 EngineeringSolutionsandEmpirical Correlation.......... 58 Distortion .................................... 151 Parametric Effects................................ 64 ResidualStresses andDistortion ThermophysicalProperties ofSelected Engineering Koichi Masubuchi................................. 158 Materials .................................... 65 FormationofResidualStresses andDistortion........... 158 FactorsInfluencingHeatFlowinFusionWelding TechniquesforMeasuringResidualStresses ............ 159 OleRunarMyhrand(cid:1)ysteinGrong..................... 67 MagnitudeandDistributionofResidualStressesin Introduction.................................... 67 Weldments.................................. 160 AnalyticalSolutionsoftheThermalFieldaroundMoving EffectsofResidual StressesandDistortionontheService PointandLineSources .......................... 68 BehaviorofWelded Structures.................... 162 Numerical andAnalyticalSolutionsoftheThermal ThermalTreatmentsofWeldments................... 165 FieldinComplexWeldingOperations................ 75 Acknowledgment ................................ 80 Fundamentals ofSolid-StateWelding................... 169 TransferofHeatandMasstotheBaseMetalinGas MetalArcWelding Mechanisms ofBondingforSolid-StateWelding IanHarris....................................... 82 Processes HeatTransfer................................... 83 Jerry E.Gould................................... 171 xi Solid-StateWeldingProcesses....................... 171 PurposeofQualification andResponsibilityfortheTask..... 260 Mechanisms ofSolid-StateBonding................... 171 Qualification ofWelding Procedures................... 260 ExtensionoftheContactingSurfaces .................. 172 Qualification ofWelding Personnel.................... 265 SeparationoftheContaminated Areas.................. 172 Qualification Documentation ........................ 265 RealignmentoftheGrainStructuresforBonding.......... 174 General DesignConsiderations forArcWeldingProcesses ThermalDissolutionofOxides/Contaminants............. 175 W.C.MohrandO.W.Blodgett........................ 266 BreakdownoftheInterfacialStructure ................. 176 Nomenclature................................... 266 ComparisonofSolid-StateBondingProcesses............ 176 TypesofJoints.................................. 266 Summary...................................... 176 TypesofWelds ................................. 267 FundamentalsofFrictionWelding WeldJointDesign ............................... 267 D.D.Kautz...................................... 179 FilletWelds.................................... 269 ProcessParameters............................... 179 GroovePreparation Welds.......................... 270 FrictionWeldingTechnology........................ 180 Groove-andFillet-WeldCombinations................. 271 Metallurgical Parameters........................... 181 EdgePreparation ................................ 271 FundamentalsofFrictionStirWelding ButtJoints..................................... 273 P.S.De,N. Kumar,J.Q.Su,andR.S.Mishra.............. 186 CornerJoints,FlangeJoints,andPlugWelds............. 274 ThermalAspects................................. 186 T-JointsandJointsforSpecificApplications............. 275 Material Flow................................... 188 JointsMadebySubmergedArcWelding................ 276 Friction....................................... 190 PowerSourcesforArcWelding Defects ....................................... 191 LeeAllgood..................................... 277 StrainandStrainRateinFSW....................... 195 PowerSourceCharacteristics........................ 277 OverallMicrostructural Feature ...................... 196 ShortArcGMAWPowerSources .................... 280 FundamentalsofUltrasonic Welding MultipleArc(MultipleOperator)PowerSources.......... 281 LeijunLiandChunbo(Sam) Zhang .................... 201 PowerSourceSelectionConsiderations................. 283 Models ....................................... 202 Arc WeldingProcessControl Results ....................................... 203 DanielA.Hartman,GeorgeE.Cook,R.BruceMadigan,and FundamentalsofSolid-StateResistance Welding DavidR.DeLapp ................................. 285 JerryE.Gould................................... 209 OverviewonWeldingProcessControl ................. 285 ProjectionWelding............................... 209 ControlSystem Requirements ....................... 285 BondingMechanisms duringSolid-State SystemParameters ............................... 286 Projection Welding ............................. 210 Sensing....................................... 287 Mechanical/Heat-Transfer Balances ................... 210 Modeling...................................... 289 EffectofSystemMechanical Dynamicson ControlofArc Welding............................ 290 Projection Welds............................... 211 ShieldingGases forArcWelding........................ 296 EffectofElectricalCharacteristics onProjection Welds ..... 213 BasicProperties ofaShieldingGas ................... 296 Geometric Effects................................ 213 ShieldingGasBlends ............................. 297 SummaryofAnalysis ............................. 215 ShieldingGasSelection............................ 297 Conclusions.................................... 215 InfluenceofShieldingGasonWeldMechanicalProperties... 300 FundamentalsofDiffusion Bonding ...................... 217 ShieldingGasand FumeGeneration................... 300 DiffusionBondingProcess.......................... 217 Self-ShieldedFluxCoredArc Welding................. 301 BondingSurfaces ContainingOxides .................. 218 Shielded MetalArcWelding Mechanism ofDiffusionBonding..................... 218 SteveKnostman .................................. 302 DiffusionBondingwithInterfaceAids ................. 220 TheSMAWProcess.............................. 302 NondestructiveEvaluationofSolid-StateWelds Applications.................................... 303 JeongNa,RogerSpencer, EvgueniTodorov,Sean Gleeson, Electrodes ..................................... 303 andPerryWhite.................................. 222 WeldSchedules andProcedures...................... 304 Nondestructive EvaluationFundamentals................ 222 VariationsoftheSMAWProcess..................... 306 ExamplesofNDEofSolid-StateWelds ................ 223 UnderwaterWelding.............................. 307 MechanicalProperties ofSoft-InterlayerSolid-StateWelds...... 230 RepairWelding ................................. 307 MicrostructureofInterlayerWelds.................... 230 SafetyConsiderations ............................. 307 TensileLoadingofSoft-InterlayerWelds ............... 231 GasMetalArcWelding ShearLoading .................................. 235 ChrisConrardy .................................. 309 MultiaxialLoading............................... 236 PrinciplesofOperation ............................ 309 EnvironmentallyInducedFailureofInterlayers ........... 236 ProcessParameters............................... 312 Consumables ................................... 313 ArcWeldingProcesses .............................. 239 Equipment..................................... 314 ProcessVariations ............................... 316 IntroductiontoArcWelding ........................... 241 SafetyConsiderations ............................. 317 ArcWeldingFundamentals ......................... 241 Plasma GasMetalArcWelding HistoricalDevelopmentofArcWelding ................ 243 IanD.Harris.................................... 318 ArcPhysicsofGasTungstenandGasMetalArcWelding Equipment..................................... 318 Y.M.Zhang ..................................... 249 Procedure ..................................... 319 GasTungstenArc Physics.......................... 249 Applications.................................... 319 GasMetalArc Physics ............................ 254 Personnel...................................... 320 QualificationofWeldingProcedures andPersonnel Hybrid LaserArc Welding HarveyR.Castner ................................ 260 BrianM.Victor .................................. 321 xii AdvantagesandLimitations........................ 321 Fixturingand ToolingforStudArcWelding............ 385 Applications andOperatingModes................... 321 Stud-WeldingQualityControl,Qualification,andInspection.. 388 ProcessDescription.............................. 322 Stud-WeldingSafety Precautions .................... 390 JointDesigns.................................. 324 CapacitorDischarge StudWelding...................... 391 EquipmentandConsumables....................... 325 Applications................................... 391 SourcesofDefects .............................. 326 Equipment.................................... 392 QualityControlandInspection...................... 327 PersonnelResponsibilities ......................... 392 Safety ....................................... 327 FluxCoredArcWelding Resistance WeldingProcesses ........................ 395 MichaelT.Merlo ................................. 329 ProcessFeatures................................ 329 IntroductiontoResistance Welding...................... 397 Applications................................... 330 TypesofResistance Welds ........................ 398 Equipment.................................... 330 Thermoelectric Effects ........................... 398 BaseMetals................................... 331 Resistance WeldingPowerSuppliesandControls Electrode Manufacture ........................... 332 DonaldF.Maatz,Jr.andTomMorrissett................ 404 Electrode Diameters ............................. 333 HeatInput.................................... 404 Electrode Classification........................... 333 Equipment.................................... 404 SubmergedArc Welding Resistance SpotWelding LeeE.Allgood................................... 335 MuraliD.Tumuluru ............................... 409 PrinciplesofOperation ........................... 335 ProcessDescription.............................. 409 ProcessApplications............................. 336 Equipment.................................... 411 Automatic SAWPowerSourceandEquipment .......... 337 MachineConstruction............................ 413 SAWFluxes. .................................. 337 WeldingElectrodes.............................. 414 Electrodes forSAW ............................. 338 EffectofSurface ConditiononWelding ............... 415 Weld-Metal Considerations ........................ 339 EvaluationMethods ............................. 416 SAWProcessParameters.......................... 339 Applications................................... 419 DefectsinSAW................................ 341 Safety ....................................... 421 TrainingandSafety ............................. 343 Projection Welding GasTungstenArcWelding WarrenPeterson.................................. 423 LeeE.Allgood................................... 344 Introduction................................... 423 Applications................................... 345 ApplicationAdvantagesandLimitations............... 425 PrincipleofOperation............................ 346 MaterialProperty Effects.......................... 426 Equipment.................................... 347 SpecificationsandRecommended Practices............. 427 GTAW WeldingProcedures........................ 351 ProcessFundamentals............................ 427 SafetyWhenUsing GTAW........................ 353 Personnel..................................... 430 Acknowledgments............................... 354 ProcessRequirements............................ 430 GasTungstenArcWelding withPenetration-Enhancing Compounds SourcesofDefects .............................. 432 IanD.Harris.................................... 355 QualityControlandInspection...................... 432 PrinciplesofOperation ........................... 355 Safety ....................................... 434 AdvantagesandDisadvantages...................... 355 Listofspecifications............................. 435 Equipment,Procedures,and Applications .............. 356 Resistance SeamWelding Personnel..................................... 357 RobertMatteson.................................. 438 PlasmaArcWelding ProcessApplications............................. 439 IanD.Harris.................................... 359 AdvantagesandLimitations........................ 439 PrinciplesofOperation ........................... 359 FundamentalsofLapSeamWelding.................. 441 AdvantagesandDisadvantages...................... 360 TypesofSeamWelds............................ 444 Equipment.................................... 360 ProcessingEquipment............................ 444 Applications................................... 361 WeldQualityandProcessControl ................... 446 TypicalComponentsandJoints ..................... 362 FlashWeldingandUpsetWelding Operations.................................... 363 R.(Bob)Matteson................................. 448 ElectroslagandElectrogasWelding Introduction................................... 448 S.D.Brandi,S.Liu,andR.D.Thomas,Jr................. 365 FlashButtWelding.............................. 448 Fundamentals oftheElectroslagProcess............... 365 UpsetWelding................................. 453 ConstitutiveEquationsforWeldingCurrent,Voltage, High-FrequencyWelding andTravel Rate .............................. 368 Menachem Kimchi ................................ 456 TemperatureRelations betweentheSlagBathand Fundamentals.................................. 457 Electrode inESW............................. 369 AdvantagesandLimitations........................ 458 ESWThermalCyclesEquations..................... 369 Applications................................... 458 ESWConsumables.............................. 370 Equipment.................................... 459 Metallurgical andChemicalReactions ................ 372 Personnel..................................... 461 ElectroslagProcessDevelopment.................... 373 Safety ....................................... 461 Electrogas Welding.............................. 374 InspectionandQuality Control...................... 461 ElectroslagandElectrogas ProcessApplications.......... 375 Procedure DevelopmentandPracticeConsiderations for ProblemsandQualityControl ...................... 376 Resistance Welding StudArcWelding.................................. 380 MuraliD.Tumuluru,HongyangZhang,andR.(Bob)Matteson.. 463 ProcessOverview............................... 380 SpotWeldingVariables........................... 463 xiii SeamWeldingProcedureDevelopment................. 473 DesignofLaser BeamWeld Joints.................... 570 NonferrousAlloys ............................... 482 LaserBeamWeld Quality.......................... 572 EvaluationandQuality ControlofResistance-Welded Joints Laser BeamDeliveryOpticsandManufacturingEconomics HongyanZhang .................................. 486 TimWebber..................................... 580 QualityAttributesofResistance Welds................. 486 OpticsforBeamDelivery .......................... 580 DestructiveTesting............................... 489 ManufacturingEconomics.......................... 583 Nondestructive Testing ............................ 495 Laser DepositionProcesses J.O.Milewski andT.Palmer......................... 587 LaserCladding.................................. 587 HighEnergyElectronBeam andLaserBeamWelding. ...... 505 Near-Net ShapeProcessing ......................... 591 Laser Weld QualityMonitoring IntroductiontoHighEnergyDensityElectronand RandolphPaura.................................. 595 LaserBeamWelding OverviewofLaser Welding......................... 595 J.W.Elmer,P.W.Hochanadel,K.Lachenberg,andT.Webber.... 507 ProcessVariables................................ 597 HistoryofElectronBeamsandLaser Beams............. 507 Real-TimeorIn-Process Monitoring................... 599 Properties ofElectronandLaser Beams ................ 509 ExamplesofLaser WeldMonitoring................... 601 ComparisonbetweenElectronandLaser Beam Laser Cutting,Drilling,andShockPeening Welding..................................... 511 CharlesCaristan ................................. 606 ElectronBeam PrinciplesofLaser-Cutting ThermalProcesses............ 606 ElectronBeamWelding PrinciplesofLaser-Drilling Processes.................. 619 P.W.Hochanadel,J.W.Elmer,K. Lachenberg,P.Burgardt, PrinciplesofLaser Shock-PeeningProcesses............. 621 andD.D.Kautz .................................. 514 MicrojoiningwithLaser andElectronBeams PrinciplesofOperation ............................ 514 GeraldA.Knorovsky............................... 625 Advantages .................................... 515 Definition—WhatIsaMicroweld?.................... 625 Limitations..................................... 516 MicroscalePhysicalPhenomena...................... 625 ProcessControl ................................. 517 ProcessDescription............................... 628 OperationSequenceandPreparation................... 517 TechniquesandApplications........................ 632 WeldGeometry ................................. 519 FutureTrends................................... 634 JointDesign.................................... 519 ElectronBeamWeldingMachines .................... 519 Safety ........................................ 520 Solid–State WeldingProcesses......................... 639 DesignConsiderationsforElectronBeamWelding KennLachenberg,PatrickHochanadel,andJohn Elmer...... 522 Procedure DevelopmentandPractice Considerationsfor WeldGeometry ................................. 522 InertiaandDirect-Drive RotaryFrictionWelding JointDesign.................................... 524 TimStotler...................................... 641 SpecialJointsandWelds........................... 526 Tooling....................................... 642 EBWinVacuum ................................ 527 ProcedureQualifications ........................... 642 EBWinNonvacuum.............................. 529 ProcessMonitoringandControlofRotaryFrictionWelding Tooling/Fixturing ................................ 531 DanielA.HartmanandThomasJ.Lienert ............... 646 WeldingofThinMetal ............................ 531 Background.................................... 646 EBWofThickMetal ............................. 532 SystemParameters ............................... 647 UseofFillerMetal............................... 533 Monitoring..................................... 648 EBWforPoorlyAccessible Joints .................... 534 Control ....................................... 652 DesignforScanning/JointTracking ................... 535 In-ProcessQualityControl.......................... 652 ElectronBeamWeldingasaRepairMethod............. 536 Development ofWeldingProceduresforFrictionStirWelding EBWProcessControlPlans,Codes,andSpecifications...... 538 KevinJ.Colligan................................. 654 NontraditionalApplicationsofElectronBeams Procedureand ProcedureDevelopmentRequirements....... 655 KennLachenberg,ScottStecker, KarenTaminger,and ProcedureDevelopment............................ 656 GaryLaFlamme ................................. 540 ProcedureQualification............................ 661 ElectronBeamNear-NetShape Processing .............. 540 FrictionStirWeldingToolDesigns Dynamic BeamDeflection Processing.................. 544 CarlD.Sorensen ................................. 664 QualityControlofElectronBeamsandWelds FrictionStir WeldingToolMaterials .................. 664 T.A.Palmer,P.W. Hochanadel,andK.Lachenberg......... 548 FrictionStir WeldingToolGeometry .................. 666 ProcessControlofEssential Variables ................. 548 PredictingandMeasuring ToolPerformance ............. 672 BeamDiagnosticToolsforDetermining BeamFocus....... 549 Summary...................................... 673 QualityControl ................................. 554 FrictionSurfacing................................... 678 LaserBeam ProcessDescription............................... 678 LaserBeamWelding Equipment..................................... 679 TimWebber, ThomasLieb,andJ.Mazumder.............. 556 Applications.................................... 679 Laser BeamWeldingAdvantagesand Limitations ......... 556 Diffusion Bonding .................................. 682 Laser BeamWeldingFundamentals andProcess ProcessVariants................................. 682 Physics...................................... 558 DiffusionBondingofMetals ........................ 683 ProcessSelection ................................ 560 DiffusionBondingofOxideCeramics (Ref46)........... 685 Healthand Safety................................ 566 ExplosionWelding LaserBeamWeld Design,Codes,andQuality Assessment StephenLiu,JohnBanker, andCurtisProthe ............. 690 J.Mazumder,TimWebber,andRandolphPaura........... 570 OverviewofProcessAttributes ...................... 690 xiv Procedure DevelopmentandPracticeConsiderations ...... 691 ModelingofThermal-Electrical-Mechanical Couplingin WeldCharacteristics............................. 695 FusionWelding ManufacturingProcessandPractice .................. 697 A.De ......................................... 789 ProductsandApplications......................... 698 ThermalAnalysis............................... 789 ForgeandCoextrusionWelding ElectricalAnalysis .............................. 790 PaulS.Korinko .................................. 701 DiscretizationofSheet-Electrode GeometryforNumerical ForgeWelding................................. 701 Modeling................................... 790 CoextrusionWelding............................. 702 In-ProcessGrowthofElectrode-SheetContact........... 790 MagneticPulseWelding IncorporationofLatentHeat ....................... 791 SachinD.Kore,J.Imbert, Y.Zhou,andM.Worswick ....... 704 EstimationofContact Resistivity.................... 791 FundamentalTheory............................. 704 ResultsandDiscussions........................... 792 Equipment.................................... 705 ModelingofMetallurgical MicrostructureEvolution in Magnetic PulseWelding Process .................... 706 FusionWelding ProcessParameters.............................. 707 Ole RunarMyhrand(cid:1)ysteinGrong.................... 797 MechanicalTesting ofMagnetic-PulsedWelds .......... 707 TheInternalStateVariableApproach................. 797 Metallurgical Characterization ofMagnetic-PulsedWelds... 707 IsokineticMicrostructureModels .................... 798 Applications................................... 708 ComplexMicrostructure ModelsDescribingtheEvolution SafetyGuidelinesWhileHandlingtheMPWSetup ....... 708 ofaParticleSizeDistribution..................... 807 Summary..................................... 709 MicrostructureModelingintheContextofEngineering ColdWelding Design..................................... 813 NielsBay....................................... 711 Acknowledgments............................... 817 BondingMechanisms andTheoretical Modelingof Numerical AspectsofModelingWelds BondStrength................................ 711 John Goldak,MahyarAsadi,andLennartKarlsson ......... 819 AlternativeMethodsofSurfacePreparation............. 712 ModelingofWelds.............................. 819 QualityControl ................................ 713 GeometryofWeldModels......................... 820 ProcessVariantsandApplications ................... 713 EnergyEquationandHeatTransfer .................. 820 RollWeldingandLaser RollWelding MicrostructureEvolution.......................... 825 MuneharuKutsuna................................ 717 ThermalStress AnalysisofWelds ................... 826 RollWelding.................................. 717 FluidFlowintheWeld Pool ....................... 827 Laser RollWelding.............................. 719 Acknowledgment ............................... 828 Laser RollWeldingofDissimilar Metals............... 720 ModelingofThermomechanical PhenomenainFusionWelding UltrasonicWelding C. Schwenk ..................................... 830 JanetDevine .................................... 725 BasicPrinciples andHeatEffectsofWelding ........... 830 EquipmentandProcessParameters................... 725 RequiredMaterial Properties andMeasurement PersonnelRequirements........................... 728 Techniques.................................. 831 Applications................................... 729 AnalysisofMaterial Properties InputData ............. 832 UltrasonicAdditive Manufacturing ExperimentalDataforValidationofThermaland KarlGraff...................................... 731 MechanicalResults............................ 834 ProcessFundamentals............................ 731 WorkflowforThermomechanicalWelding Simulation ..... 835 Applications................................... 733 EquipmentandProcedures......................... 734 Reference Information.............................. 843 Material PropertiesinUAM........................ 735 QualityControl ................................ 739 SafeWeldingPractices Safety ....................................... 740 American WeldingSociety........................... 845 SafetyManagement ............................. 845 ProtectionoftheWorkArea ....................... 846 PersonalProtectiveEquipment...................... 848 FundamentalsofWeldModeling...................... 743 ProtectionAgainstFumesandGases.................. 850 IntroductiontoIntegratedWeldModeling SafeHandlingofCompressed Gases.................. 855 SudarsanamSureshBabu ........................... 745 ProtectionAgainstElectromagnetic Radiation ........... 858 ProcessModeling............................... 746 ElectricalSafety................................ 858 MicrostructureModeling.......................... 748 FirePreventionandProtection...................... 860 Performance Modeling ........................... 754 ExplosionPrevention ............................ 861 AccessandDelivery ofIntegratedWeldProcessModels ... 756 Process-Specific SafetyConsiderations ................ 861 UseofOptimizationMethodologies .................. 758 SafetyinRoboticOperations....................... 866 ConcludingRemarks............................. 759 WeldingFuelsandShieldingGases ..................... 869 ModelingofHeatandMassTransferinFusionWelding SummaryofFusion WeldingProcesses................... 870 WeiZhang,RohitRai,AmitKumar,andIgorV.Krivtsun..... 766 Weldability ofFerrousandNonferrousAlloys.............. 874 ImportantConsiderations.......................... 766 Preheatand PostweldHeatTreatmentTemperaturesfor Mathematical Description ......................... 767 Selected Steels .................................. 878 Application toFusionWeldingProcesses .............. 775 GlossaryofTerms ................................. 882 MassTransferinWeldPool ....................... 780 Abbreviations..................................... 892 ReliabilityofModels ............................ 785 Metric ConversionGuide............................. 895 FutureModels ................................. 786 Index........................................... 897 xv Fundamentals of Welding AnOverview ofJoiningProcesses....................... 3 OverviewofWeldingProcesses........................ 13 Need forJoining................................... 3 ClassificationofWeldingProcesses ..................... 13 ForcesandInteractions inMaterialsJoining ............... 4 ChemicallyDrivenFusionWelding ..................... 14 Mechanical Joining—FasteningandIntegral Attachment....... 5 ElectricArcFusionWelding .......................... 16 AdhesiveBonding ................................. 6 Directed-EnergyFusion WeldingProcesses................ 21 Welding......................................... 7 Nonfusion(Solid-State) WeldingProcesses................ 24 Brazing andSoldering............................... 9 Brazingand Soldering............................... 25 Variantand HybridProcesses.......................... 10 General DesignAspects.............................. 10 Summary........................................ 11

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