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Artificial Chemistries PDF

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ARTIFICIAL CHEMISTRIES ARTIFICIAL CHEMISTRIES WolfgangBanzhafandLidiaYamamoto TheMITPress Cambridge,Massachusetts London,England ©2015MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyformbyanyelectronicormechanicalmeans(including photocopying,recording,orinformationstorageandretrieval)withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher. MITPressbooksmaybepurchasedatspecialquantitydiscountsforbusinessorsalespromotionaluse.Forinformation, [email protected] ThisbookwassetinNewTimesRomanusingtheLaTeX—Memoirclass. PrintedandboundintheUnitedStatesof America. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Banzhaf,Wolfgang,1955— Artificialchemistries/WolfgangBanzhafandLidiaYamamoto. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN978-0-262-02943-8(hardcover:alk. paper)1. Biochemistry. 2. Molecularevolution. 3. Chemistry,Physicaland theoretical.4.Evolution(Biology)5.Life—Origin.I.Yamamoto,Lidia.II.Title. QD415.B242015 572—dc23 2014046071 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 artificial,a.,contrivedbyartratherthannature:”artificialflowers”; http://www.thefreedictionary.com/artificial,accessed2014 Madeorproducedbyhumanbeingsratherthanoccurringnaturally,typicallyasa copyofsomethingnatural. https://www.google.ca,accessed2014 chemistry,n.,abranchofphysicalsciencethatstudiesthecomposition,structure, propertiesandchangeofmatter,[fromGreek:χημ(cid:4)ια], http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry,accessed2014 Theinvestigationofsubstances,theirpropertiesandreactions,andtheuseofsuch reactionstoformnewsubstances. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/chemistry,accessed2014 CONTENTS Preface xi I Foundations 1 1 Introduction 3 2 BasicConceptsofArtificialChemistries 11 2.1 ModelingandSimulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.2 ChemistryConcepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.3 GeneralStructureofanArtificialChemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.4 AFewImportantDistinctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.5 TwoExamples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.6 FrequentlyUsedTechniquesinACs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3 TheMatrixChemistryasanExample 45 3.1 TheBasicMatrixChemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3.2 TheSimplestSystem,N=4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.3 TheSystemN=9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.4 SystemswithLargerN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 4 ComputingChemicalReactions 63 4.1 FromMacroscopictoMicroscopicChemicalDynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 4.2 StochasticReactionAlgorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 4.3 SpatialandMulticompartmentalAlgorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 4.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 II LifeandEvolution 75 5 TheChemistryofLife 77 5.1 WhatIsLife? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 5.2 TheBuildingBlocksofLife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 5.3 TheOrganizationofModernCells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 5.4 MulticellularOrganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 5.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 viii CONTENTS 6 TheEssenceofLife 111 6.1 AMinimalCell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 6.2 OriginofLife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 6.3 ArtificialChemistryContributionstoOriginofLifeResearch. . . . . . . . . . . 130 6.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 7 Evolution 139 7.1 Evolution:TamingCombinatoricstoImproveLife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 7.2 EvolutionaryDynamicsfromanACPerspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 7.3 ArtificialChemistriesforEvolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 7.4 SummaryandOpenIssues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 8 ComplexityandOpen-EndedEvolution 159 8.1 Evolution:SteeringSelf-OrganizationandPromotingInnovation . . . . . . . . 159 8.2 CoevolutionaryDynamicsinEcologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 8.3 RobustnessandEvolvability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 8.4 ComplexityGrowth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 8.5 TowardOpen-EndedArtificialEvolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 8.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 III ApproachestoArtificialChemistries 179 9 RewritingSystems 181 9.1 LambdaCalculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 9.2 Gamma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 9.3 TheChemicalAbstractMachine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 9.4 ChemicalRewritingSystemonMultisets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 9.5 Psystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 9.6 MGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 9.7 OtherFormalCalculiInspiredbyaChemicalMetaphor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 9.8 L-SystemsandOtherRewritingSystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 9.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 10 AutomataandMachines 195 10.1 FiniteStateAutomata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 10.2 TuringMachines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 10.3 VonNeumannMachines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 10.4 CellularAutomata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 10.5 ExamplesofArtificialChemistriesBasedonTuringMachines . . . . . . . . . . 202 10.6 ArtificialChemistriesBasedonvonNeumannMachines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 10.7 ArtificialChemistriesBasedonCellularAutomata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 10.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 11 Bio-inspiredArtificialChemistries 225 11.1 String-BasedArtificialChemistries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 11.2 Lock-and-KeyArtificialChemistries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 11.3 Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 11.4 SpatialStructuringandMovementinArtificialChemistries . . . . . . . . . . . 248 11.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 CONTENTS ix IV OrderConstruction 255 12 TheStructureofOrganizations 257 12.1 BasicDefinitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 12.2 Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 12.3 BringingOrderintoOrganizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 12.4 NoveltyandInnovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 12.5 ExamplesoftheStaticsofOrganizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 12.6 HowtoCalculateClosedandSelf-MaintainingSets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 12.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 13 TheDynamicsofOrganizations 275 13.1 Flows,StoichiometryandKineticConstants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 13.2 ExamplesoftheDynamicsofOrganization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 13.3 ObservingOrganizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 13.4 ProbabilisticNotionsofClosureandSelf-Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 13.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 14 Self-OrganizationandEmergentPhenomena 287 14.1 ExamplesofSelf-OrganizingSystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 14.2 ExplanatoryConceptsofSelf-Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 14.3 TheEmergenceofPhenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 14.4 ExplanatoryConceptsofEmergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 14.5 EmergenceandTop-DownCausation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 14.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 15 ConstructiveDynamicalSystems 307 15.1 Novelty,Innovation,Emergence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 15.2 BirthProcessesattheSameLevel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 15.3 TheEmergenceofEntitiesonaHigherLevel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 15.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 V Applications 321 16 ApplicationsofArtificialChemistries 323 16.1 RobotsControlledbyArtificialChemistries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 16.2 ACsforNetworking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 16.3 LanguageDynamicsandEvolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 16.4 MusicCompositionUsingAlgorithmicChemistries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 16.5 ProofSystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 16.6 ArtificialChemistryandGeneticProgramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 16.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 17 ComputingwithArtificialChemistries 345 17.1 Principlesofimplementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 17.2 SearchandOptimizationAlgorithmsInspiredbyChemistry . . . . . . . . . . . 355 17.3 DistributedAlgorithmsUsingChemicalComputing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 17.4 InSilicoSimulationofWetChemicalComputing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 17.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

Description:
An introduction to the fundamental concepts of the emerging field of Artificial Chemistries, covering both theory and practical applications. The field of Artificial Life (ALife) is now firmly established in the scientific world, but it has yet to achieve one of its original goals: an understanding
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