Architecture and engineering- An illustratedTeacher’s Manual

107 Pages·1983·30.648 MB·English

by  Mario Salvadori, Michael Tempel, M. P. Levy (Illustrator)

The New York Academy of Sciences Architecture and Engineering
EDITORIAL STAFF
Erec:utlW Edita(
Bill IIOl,AND
AUOC,.,_ £<1110,s The Nev. Yostk, ,A,,,,c.a, demy of Sc,ences
GEOAClE T SIMONSON 2 E�st 63ra
Nt,w YOik Nttw York 10021
INDIA TFhNLEY
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THE NEW YOR�K ACADtf'lE1MI1Y7) OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF GOVERNORS, 11183
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ARCHITECTURE
and
ENGINEERING
An Illustrated Teacher's Manual
on Why Buildings Stand Up
by
MARIO SALVADOR!
Columbia University
and
MICHAEL TEMPEL
P.S. 75 M of the New York City School System
With an Appendix on Styrofoam Models by
RICHARD KELLOGG
University of Arkansas
Illustrations by MATTHYS P. l.EVY
Weidilnger Associates
Contents
ix
PREFACE
xiii
ACKNOWLEDCMENTS
THE FoRCtSTHAT Acr 011 5-raucruu.s 1
Copyriabc C 1983 by The Now Yorl< Academy of Sc,cncc1.
Al ricl>&J,-r,cd I. Weight and Gravity 2
Unit 1
2. The Work of Engineers and Architects; The
Structure of the Classroom; Live Load and
� ,,/ c..,r... CotaJ.si•I la l"obllcalioo Dau Dead Load 3
w.-. Mano G«q<, 1907- 3. An Estimate of the Total Weight Aaing on
�.... a.ad m11n«nn1 the Classroom Floor 4
.......,.._ p 4. Weight Per Unit Arca (Pressure) and Concen-
1 AnJuo«Ntt t Scruaunl ....,,_,,,.. trating the Load 7
I T-,.1, Mdlod, 1�7- II Tulc 5. The Pressure on the Cla.uroom Floor 8
,,__1>4 1911 621 13-1 lff4
6. More About Pressure IO
7. Lateral (Sideways) Pressure J/
8. Contributory Area; Contributory Load;
Accumulated Load 13
9. The Effect of Wind on Buildingt 15
10. What Happens to Buildings During Eanh-
quakcs 18
11. Static Loads and Dynamic Loads 19
12. The Pendulum 20
13. Resonance 22
EQUILIBRIUM 24
14. Equilibrium in Transla1ion 25
Unit 2
15. Equilibrium in Ro1ation 26
16. Rolational Equilibrium and the Tipping of
Buildingt 29
17. Center of Gravity 33
18. Another Illustration of Equilibrium 36
UniJ 3 TENSION AND CoMPRUSION 39
19. Ten1ion and Compre11ion 40
20. Tension Causes Elongation and Compression
Causes Shonening
CCI'
,.,1.-n.o IJI fHI LlffTfD ff41U OP AN.&IJCA
21. Buckling 43
ISSN 0-1197"6• 2 I 2-I
41
y
UniJ 49
4 Bl!.AMs AND CoLUMNS 85
22. How to Suppon a Beam and a Review of 46. How a Truss Works 86
Equilibrium 46 47. A Different Type of Truss 88
23. A Beam Deflects Under Loads 48 48. Two More Types of Trunes 89
2♦. A Beam Bends Under a Load 49 49. Building aT russ Bridge 90
25. How F1Xed•End Beams Behave in Comparison 50. Building Another Kind of Truss Bridge 92
with Simply Supponed Beams 50 51. How Trus�s May be Used as Wind Bracing in
26. How Cantilever Beams Behave in Comparison Buildings 94
with Simply Supponed and Fixed-End 52. Building Other Types ofT.russa; Space
Beams 52 Frames 96
27. LocatingT ension and Compression in Simply
Supponed, Fixed-End and Cantilever Beams; Poinu Unit 7 BEARING WALLS AND FaAMU 99
54
of Inflection
55 53. B<earing-Wall and Floor (Post·and•Lintd)
28. Linear Stress Distribution I 00
56 Construction
29. Shear
57 54. Making a Post·and-Limd into a Rigid
30. Torsion 102
Frame
31. The Cross-Sectional Shape of a Structural Element 104
59 55. How Framed Construction Works
Affects its Strength 106
56. A Viercndecl Truss
32. The Way in Which the Cross Section of a Beam is
60
Oriented Affects its Stiffness. UniJ8 GABLED FIIAMU, All.CHES, AND 0oM£S 107
33. Comparing Beams of Different Cross-Sectional
Shapes 61 57. Gabled Fram<es 108
109
3♦. The Stiffness of a Column is Affected by its Cross· 58. Antifunit'lllar Polygons; Arches
Sectional Shape 62 59. The Various Shapes an Arch May
35. Moment of lnenia 63 Taite ll2
36. Which Materials an: Appropriate for Structures; 60. Vauh1 and Domes JU
The Difference Between ElasLic and Plastic
Behavior 64 UniJ9 FoLOi:.o-Pv.Ti:. Roon JJ7
37. More on Elastic and Plastic Propenies of
66 61. Building a Structure with a Folded-Plate
Materials 118
67 Roof
38. Isotropic and Anisotropic Materials
62. Building Another Struc-turc with a Crca�d-
39. Some Materials Work Equally Wdl in Tension and JJ9
Paper Roof
Compression and Some Do Not; How Reinforced 120
68 63. Building a Crca�d-Papcr Barrel Roof
Concrete ,s Made
Unit JO INFLATED MEMBRANES 122
u. . , 70
5 CABLES AND MEMBRANES 64. How Inflated Membran� Behave; Using an
40. How Cables Carry Loads 71 Inflated Membrane as a Beam 123
41. The Funicular (or String) Polygon 72 65. Using an Inflated Membrane as a
125
42. How Suspcmion Bridges Work 74 Column
43. How a Net of Cables Works; How Membrane• 66. Using Inflated Membranes to BuildT russes
Work as Structures 79 and a House 125
44. Hyperbolic Paraboloids (Hypars) 82 67. Building a Tetrahedron and Wheels wfth
45. Evaluating It (Pi) 83 Inflated Membranes 126
vi vii
Preface
68. Building Pyramids with Inflated Membranes
f.Jld Connecting Them to Form a
Takenaka Truss /27
69. Using Inflated Membrann 10 Make an Arrh,
a Dom,., a Barrel Roof, and a Lamdla
128
Roof
70. Malung a Single-Layer Inflated Membrane
This manual is the fruit of my work in the schools of East Har­
129
Roof lem, the Nonh and South Bronx, and other areas of the New York
City School System during the last seven years.
133
SuccESTtONS ON How TO Us£ THIS MANUAL When in 1975 the then science coordinator of District 4, Bonnie
33
0vCJ"View / Brownstein, asked the help of the members of The New York
134
Sequencing Academy of Sciences in enriching the science curriculum in her dis­
136
Flow Charting strict, I proposed as my contribution a counc in architectural struc­
136
Examples of Preplanned Sequences tures for the students in one of the junior high schools of that district.
The Playground 13 7 The new coune, called "Why Buildings Stand Up," was going to be
139
Bridges based on one I had taught for the last 30 yean in the Graduate
U 1
Slcyscrapen School of Architecture and Urban Planning at Columbia Univer­
Paper H2 sity.
143
Inflated Membranes (Balloons) To my surprise my proposal was accepted and I thus began
143
A Construction Site teaching at the Raphael Cordero Bilingual Minischool in East
146
A Demolition Site Harlem, assisted by two of my Columbia students. It was hard to
146
Historical Studies believe, then, that 12- and 13-ycar-olds would be interested in a
Literary and An Studies H7 course of founeen SO-minute sessions on the basic principles of
148
Working and Recording architecture and engineering. But the 30 unscreened students who
Examples and Calculations U9 volunteered for the counc showed such incredible enthusiasm for
52
Materials and Games / the ideas we presented, the models they built, and the buildings and
152
Cardboard, Paper, and Wood bridges we visited together, that I was urged to write a teacher's
Tongue Dcpresson, Ice Cream Sticks, and Paper manual to facilitate the dissemination of the counc. The fint draft
153
Fasteners has been distributed in all 50 states as well as Great Britain and
153
Styrofoam Australia.
Construct-O-Straws, Geo-D-Stix, Tinker Toys, Anna Freud, the daughter of Sigmund Freud and an authority
153
Straws, and Pipe Cleaners on child psychology, explained away my surprise. The success of the
155
Wooden Blocks course, she said, was due to three facton. The course deals with the
156
Erector Sets built environment, that is, with a "real life" subject, rather than with
156
Other Construct ion Toys theoretical subjects like mathematics and grammar. The students
157
Weighing and Measuring Equipment arc at an age when they love to use their manual skills through the
158
A Note on Weights and Measures building of models. The students arc at a point in their development
APP!.NDICES 161 when their intelligence is still growing: after pubeny, it seems, our
A. Styrofoam Models by Richard Kellogg 161 intelligence remains what it is or, more often, "goes downhill." The
B. Sources of Materials / 77 half-hour film taken during the course• shows that Dr. Freud's
C. Glossary /7 8 assessment is entirely correct.
188
D. Bibliography
• The furn ia available on loan from Publication Service,, The New York Audrmy
193
)ND!.X BY LESSON NUMBER of Sciences (2 Ea.It 63rd Street, New York, NY 10021) or may be bought from the
Audemy.
viii ix
Following lhe 1ugge11ion of many educa1on that a more com· Prtfac, pensive ma1eriaJ1•, Many paths through the nanual can be based Pr,fac,
plete and detailed presentation would be of greater utiatance 10 pro· on the materials used: the engineering of paper models, the tech·
tpenive lc:achen, I decidro to revi1e the lim draft of 1he manual. nology of Erector scu, the construction of tonguc-deprcuor 11ruc•
This ha1 been made possible by the unique ,kills and invaluable col· lures, the archi1cc1urc of Styrofoam models. There i1 no limit 10 the
labora1ion of Michael Tempel, one of my former engineering development of such models: our experience show• that your
1tuden11 and a cenili.-d teacher m the New York City school 1y11em. students will contribute en1hu1ias1ically 10 model building, par­
The manual, published through the gencro1i1y and in1ue11 of ticularly of the structures they invent themselves.
The New York Aaulc:my of Sciences, pre1enu the material in 1he Although, s1ric1ly speaking, a 1cx1book for the COUl'e docs not
course subdivided into 10 units comprising 70 lessons. Each lesson exist and is no1 needed, we suggest as a pouiblc 1cxt a book I wrote
con1i111 of: for young adults. t A number of other source books are Ji11ed in the
• 11a1ement of purpose bibliography at the end of the manual.
• vocabulary The glossary of architectural and structural temu, which pre­
• li11 of material, cedes the bibliography, should facili1a1e their cornet use, although
• detailed prc1en1a1ion of the leuon's subject, called the Devel· each term in the glossary is also defined where it lint appean in the
opmen1 ICXI,
• follow-up activi1ica for the clan room Michael Tempel and I would be delighted 10 receive inquiries
• follow-up activities for the 11uden1s al home (or in the class and suggestions from those who use our manual: address them 10
room) me, care ofThc New York Academy of Sciences, 2 Ea.st 63rd Street,
The teacher should no1 feel compelled 10 teach 1he entire se• New York, NY 10021.
quence oflc11on1 in 1he manual or to teach them in the order of1hcir
appearance. A "pa1h of lessons" through 1hr manual can be <hosen, MARIO SALVADOR!
dictated by the circumstances of your environment, and the level of Jamu R,,,u,icJ; Profasor (EmniJiu) of Cillil &iwm·"l
intcrca1 and knowledge of your students. The material in the manual GNJ Pro/am (Emrriliu) of .Archil«turt
Colwnbia UaiM"rity
can be 1pread over one or more years. one of our leachrn s1a11ed us­
ing ii in founh grade and continued 1hr presentation through 1hr
1enior year of junior high school. Although ii is natural for a science
teacher 10 present 1hc material, the study of archi1ec1ure and
engineering can also be u1ed in conjunction with nomciencc subjects
1uth a, hi11ory, geography, sociology, environmental scienres, and
li1era1urc. Obviously the material in the manual is panicularly wdl
adapted 10 excite s1uden11 in mathemaliCI and physics, through 1u
practical applications 10 the world around them.
In order 10 focili1a1c 1he task of choosing an in1rres1ing sci of
lcnons among the 70 in 1he manual, we have suggcued, in "Ex­
amples of Pr<"plannc:d Sequences," a numlx-r of pa1h1 inspired by
the immediate environment. Depending on whell,cr you are ini1inlly
mo1iva1cd by a con11ruc1ion •ile in 1hc ncighl,orhnod, one or more
bridge• in the vicinity of1hc school, or the 11rur1urcs in your school'•
playground, you can follow one of these su1,o{c•ted pa1hs, ull of
which lead 10 the considrra1ion of the same basic principles ofa rchi­
tecture and 11ru1 lure On 1he other hand, you will lind tl1r search for • A ki1 containing all 1hc nuumals and tools n«d<d 10 build the models in the
your own path 10 l>e interrs1ing and crca1iv,·. manual hu bcc,n put 1�1hcr by Maurice, �itrr of the Uni,cd Fede-ration o(
S1udrn11 will gel involved in 1he roursc 1hmugh a variety of Trachrn, 260 Park Avtnur Sou1h, Nrw York, NY, 10010.
t Number i4 or the bibliography.
11ruc1ural models 1ha1 require the use of easily available and incx·
xi
X
Acknowledgments
We wish 10 exprcu our deep gratitude to
Bonn., BrownJlt1n, lormcr � al Edoo<a,io:Jeal Ptocnirm al The� York
A<Mlcmy ol Sctenen, who 1w ....,.,...t. a,ppw,a!, and mo,nadkd UI all lbe way
chrouch.
Nydia No,,ua, Dt«oorolcbe � Carden, Bifincua1 Muuad,uol and hcrtUIT.
what<: enthu,,um 1taruxl won cbe oelo• �
o.,,.. and frank M111aya, who rdmod our finl c:uurx w,da lklD and lc,y,,;
Anthony Alv1rwlo, Supn,ncmdnn ol Dutna f, wbo allowt'.d .. 10 11&11 in hiJ
cJJllnct,
fm! Goldbn-g Supmntnadm1 olDiaula 10, and luo -• N..,.... Ba,ba and
BtU Bc:tmc. tupponcn m our IIIOll ra:atl dtttria;
Monme Roealk and Anit.my l..ancrilaa1, our r,,.. ,.,.unc«f -anu 1n th<
1cachm1 of thu counr. and Danny� Mv,o Slault and Clari< Bngp, who
followed 111 th«r path,
j&n<tle Ln-, ol Jun,or H• Schocl PS. 109, wbo bC!C:am< cbe (int 1-i.n 10 adopt
and 1mprow our murw;
Ptttt ulun1, ron-, 0.:.. al cbe Sdaool ol Engi,,cmng. and R""" Tn u, D1tte1or
of cbe Ma1<nal1 T...., , l...aborato,y al Col,,mlxa Uno,,cnuy, for their au1honzauon
and h<lp on u•o1 cbe r.cili,ia o( thr lab;
Jama S. Poltlwk, 0..... and Max Bond and 1imochy Wood. p,oknc,n tn 111<
c....iua .. s.bool "'An.hllce1Ul'T and Urban Planrung .. Cohunboa Un1vernry. who
orp.ruard • a,mpctJIICNI amonc ,bar •udmu for the dwrn of a Community
Cen1tr in Diotn<t 10, and 5trff fucich who won lbe a,mpt11110<l and 11 at prnen1
uaittanc in Diann 10;
Or. RO<hanl MuU1n1, Oirenor of Minonty EITo<1 in Engmc:tting Education (Mtl).
who condue1ed cbe aneumcn1 of our <ITon.
� Acu1rr<, Proc,am Oirtt1or, Enon Eduation foundation. who gave u• h11
good advia and !ht-fonanaal hdp of th., Fouodauon:
Dr W�lard J. Jaoot,.,,n, Tcach<rt Colkg<, Columb4a Un1vcntcy, who advi-1 u1
and pve 1nvaluAhk ouppon,
Philip T. Romano, �ant in ch< N,:w York Chy Poloae Force, who helped our
contac11 with the community and i, our �th111iuuc tupponn-.
Conrad Fon!, D1rutor of 111< Police Athl<toc Leacue, who l""'�Y a>ntnbuted to our
worlt in lht Souch Bronx:
Dr. Morrit H. Shamoa, Preaodtn1 of Th< New York Aadnny of Sama,. Or
Sodn,y Borowi1&, 11• Cormtt Execuuvc Otl'TCIO<', and Monon M<y<n, i" Admu,i1•
1ra1ive OIJ'CCU>r, who 1upponed u1 from chc lxginrung and choac co publish th11
manual;
Richan! Kellogg, prorco10r or An:hilccturc at cht Umv<r1lty of Arl.an■a1. who
allow«! u1 co indudc in the manual h11 handbook on modelling with Styroloam;
Matthys P. Ltvy, a pan.nu orWtodlingtt Anoc.iaca, Conaul1in1 �. who
skillfully and cradoullly dttw the 11<0ra of line drawinga chat illuattata the muaual;
xiii
�
1
c.roi B. Salvadan and C-� T '"'°""°"• who wrtt our cnucal td11on, Acknowledgmmts Unit
Peart "-ufman, who uullfuUy typed all 1h, draf11 of the manual,
M&l)O<ic Z-rn Goldm1tw and D,ck Lynch, who dn,gncd 1hc, manual w11h 1kdl, The Forces that Act on Structures
r-.
Edward j · Fiakr, EducabOn Dironor ol th<-Ntw Y...t l'or hit COOIUlUOUI 1up­
port, which b.clped apttad ow courw throughout 1b,c Un11td SultN,
and the many tcachen III the Unu<d Staia and abroad, moll of th<-m not known to
UI, who hatt ulC'd lhc pr,viou1 drafts of thc manual
Buildings and other structures arc subject, ftnl of all, to the
force of gravity Both a butldmg and its corumts h.avc wright, which
must be taken into account in the dnign. Some laaons of this unit
deal simply with weight, while othcn aaminc \·cnical prasun:, the
weight per unit of area.
In addition 10 gravny, buildings arc subject to 1k wind, which
cxcns a sidcways pressure. The l'orcn g-cncnted by possibk earth­
quakes arc also an important consideration in building ckaign in
somc locations, such u California.
Buildings arc supported on bi.ncwions. Each floor .adds ad(u­
tional weight. The mti.tt accumul&led wright rcR.S on the lounda.-
1ion, which must be dajgncd to support it.
If a load ia applied suddenly, lilr.c a bammcr blow, it is called
"7-ic.
Otherwise it is a U•ic load. Wtnd gusu may apply a
dynamic load to a building, which makes the building oscillate like
an upside-down pendulum.
RE.Tl'..SVICU:
Stnuturt ue Ardiurt111r. Chaptcn I and 2
81<Jdiltt: Chaptcn 5, 8, 9
.,.
•'•
xiv
lmtn J WEIGHT AND GRAVITY Unit I • lessi,n I predict which one will be heaviest for a given volume, i.e., have the Unit I • la1011 2
greatest dnuilJ.
ObJr<livcr. To ln1roduce 1he concepts of we1Qhr, grav//y, and
density.
2 Have: the: 1tudent1 collect empty crrcal boxca. f'tnt group the
MAlma/.J: Kl1chen ecale, 1wo Jars of dlfferen1 size, wI1er, sand or boxc,s by wc:ight. Notice that boxes of the same weight may vary in
gravel, breakfas1 cereal boxes. shape and size. Nc:xt, group the boltt'I according to 1izc and notice
Vocabulary: Gr■vHy, weigh!, densl1y (unl1 weigh!) that boxes of Ult same aizc may vary in wtight. (Save empty cereal
�wlopmn,1; boxes for future activities.)
1
Aak why bodies have weight.
Explain that thr canh pulls on bodies with a forcr that i1 their
weight•. The force of gravity on an object is large if the body that
2
pull, on it i■ large, like the earth. If the body tha1 pull, on ii is only lmon THE WORK OF ENGINEERS ANO ARCHITECTS;
onc:-aixth u large H the earth, like th.-moon, 1hr pull is six 1irne1 THE STRUCTURE OF THE CI.ASSAOOM;
LIVE LOAD AND DEAD LOAD
smaller. Thr weight of the utronauta on the moon waa onc:-aixth of
their weight on earth. Oly«1ivu: To explain 1he activllles of archltecu and engineers In
cons1ructlon and the difference between wha1 an
Aak; "If Wally Schirra weigh ta 80 kg ( 175 lbs) on eanh, how
architect does and what an engl�r does.
much doc■ he wdgh on the moon?" Answer: 13 kK (29 lbs). This is To describe the structure of the room.
why the utronauts could jump so c.uily while on the moon. To Introduce the concepts of /Ive load and dead load.
2 Aak who lirat diacovercd (i.e., propoacd the idea of) gravity. MaJtTUJls: Erector Set or other construc11on rna1erlala (see
uaac development).
Aruwcr: Newton, in England in 1665. Tell the story of the ap•
pie falling on his head while he was slerping under a tree, which Vocabulary: Architect. mechanical engineer. s1ruc1ural engineer,
live load, dead load, column, beam. wall.
gave him the idea of gravity. Enact the story using a real apple. You
arc the t.rcc and a 11udcn1 is Ncw1on. Ask the class quietly whether Dro,lopmmJ;
1
you ■hould drop the apple from a grc.it height or a small height One Aak the studenu: "What doc, an architect do, and what doCI an
11udcnt, at least, will say. "From a great height." Use him, then. as enginc:er do?" Then explain:
rllOOf'
Newton rather than the student who volunteer.-d to be Newton. The architect decides the ■hapc of thr building, the location of
flOURI: 2.1
the various rooms, the type of stain and clcvatora, and the ap·
3 Use: a jar full of water sci on a kitchen scale to measure the weight pcarancc of the building.
of water. (Subtract the weight of the empty jar.) Then fill 1he jar The mc:chanical engineer designs the clcvatora, the plumbing,
with 1nnd or atones and measure the wc:ight of the jar contents again. the air-conditioning, the heating, and the electrical 1y11ems.
Show that the weight of the same volume dept'nds on the material. The structural enginccr makes sure the building will stand up ,l.0011
Fill the jar again, this time with a breakfast c.-r.-al and weigh ii under the weight of the people and objects in the building (live load),
again. Compare the weight or this volume of cc.-r.-al wi1h lite weight the weight of the building itself (dead load), and the effect of strong
llAN
of the ■ame volume of water and sand R.-pt'at the weighing of the
winds and, pouibly, eanhquakrs.
three materials with a d1fTeren1 size jar and record the results When
2
comparing the results of the different w.-ighings 1hc student• should Have the student• make a list of objecu in the cluaroom that
1cc that weight depends on both the amount (volume) of material arc pan of the live load (people, chain, de1ks, books, etc.) and COLUMN
11nd on the kind of material. another list of things that arc part of the dead load (walls, lloon,
columns, beams).
Fa/u,w-up Actioittts: Discuss how the live load of a building changes from time to
1 Repeat the d.-mon11ration in No. 3 above using different ma• time. The live load of the school i1 greatest during the day 11nd drops
teriab, 1uch ,u soil, vcrmiculitr, glass marbles, collon, or wood suddenly at three o'clock. When it is raining or .mowing the live load
bead,. Before weighing the rna1crials, the �tudenll should try to increases due to the additional weight of snow or water on the roof.
Question student• on the strength of the floor and ■tructurc of
• &riclly IJ>c»"-•nK, •wt1Kh1" 11 a mtASutr of tht' force or ,cravity, nof the force ittclf. the room. How arc ceilings held up?
3
2