Applied systems theory

278 Pages·2015·2.748 MB·English

by  Rob Dekkers

Rob Dekkers
Applied
Systems
Theory
Applied Systems Theory
Rob Dekkers
Applied Systems Theory
123
RobDekkers
Adam SmithBusiness School
Universityof Glasgow
Glasgow
UK
ISBN 978-3-319-10845-2 ISBN 978-3-319-10846-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-10846-9
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2014948763
SpringerChamHeidelbergNewYorkDordrechtLondon
©SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland2015
Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartof
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,andtransmissionor
informationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief
excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the
purposeofbeingenteredandexecutedonacomputersystem,forexclusiveusebythepurchaserofthe
work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of
theCopyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must
always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the
CopyrightClearanceCenter.ViolationsareliabletoprosecutionundertherespectiveCopyrightLaw.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexempt
fromtherelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of
publication,neithertheauthorsnortheeditorsnorthepublishercanacceptanylegalresponsibilityfor
anyerrorsoromissionsthatmaybemade.Thepublishermakesnowarranty,expressorimplied,with
respecttothematerialcontainedherein.
Printedonacid-freepaper
SpringerispartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia(www.springer.com)
To Nil and Mert for their support and patience all the way
through.
v
Foreword
What started as merely writing lecture notes became a journey through
literature available on systems theories and a quest for developing a coherent
set of principles and concepts on this matter. During my study at the Section
Industrial Organisation and Management, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Delft University of Technology, I had already experienced the bene(cid:191)ts of
systems thinking in terms of analysing organisational problems and also
understanding problems from a variety of disciplines. And it proved to be
very helpful for solving the complex problems in industry. When I returned
to Delft University of Technology as academic, I had to teach it to students
at all levels, which created a new dimension, and, in addition, I started to use
it for undertaking research, particularly for modelling of business processes
and organisations.
However, at a certain moment, it looked like systems theories had arrived
at a dead end, despite the concepts being very useful for both theory and
practice. A turning point was the doctoral study. Also driven by curiosity,
it encouraged me to look beyond systems thinking as it had been taught for
a long while at Delft University of Technology. Particularly, new emerging
theories in the science of complexity and complex adaptive systems had
fuelled advances and applications in other domains than the traditional ones
of engineering, biology and organisational studies – though this last topic
seemed to concentrate more on information technology. That led to the
inclusion of these theories in the current text.
In addition, students (and managers(cid:12) seemed at times confused by some
aspects of the theory behind systems thinking. This motivated me to take
the development to a next stage with more precise elaborations of concepts
and de(cid:191)nitions as well as keeping it practical. At the same time, that meant
looking beyond the obvious. The current writing is a re(cid:192)ection of that journey
and making system theories accessible for a wide range of audiences, which
includes now also doctoral students and fellow researchers.
That also means that many have already seen parts of this writing by
discussions, readings, lectures and seminars, among them colleagues and
students. In some cases, the need to explain also initiated improvements and
further searches. Where concepts go beyond the generic knowledge, sources
have been acknowledged in the text; where concepts are in the public domain
or based on generic knowledge, sources have been omitted. For having the
opportunity to explain and to expand, during teaching and research, I am
grateful. The long time it took, I have shared with many my thoughts.
Scotland, July 2014.
vii
Contents
Foreword vii
Synopsis xiii
I Systems, Entities as Part of a Whole ...............................................xiii
II System Approaches ...........................................................................xvi
III Processes .........................................................................................xix
IV (cid:38)ontrol of Processes ........................................................................xxi
V Steady-State Model ........................................................................xxv
VI Autopoiesis ..................................................................................xxviii
VII (cid:38)omplex Adaptive Systems ..........................................................xxix
VIII (cid:37)reakthrough Model ......................................................................xxx
1 Introduction 1
1.1 (cid:38)oncise History of Systems Theories ................................................1
1.2 Application of Systems Theories .......................................................4
1.(cid:22) Foundations of Applied Systems Theory ...........................................7
1.4 Hard Systems Approach vs. Soft Systems Approach .........................8
1.5 Who Might (cid:37)ene(cid:191)t from Applied Systems Theory and How? ..........9
1.6 Outline of (cid:37)ook ................................................................................11
References ...................................................................................................12
2 Basic Concepts 15
2.1 Systems.............................................................................................16
2.2 Properties of Systems .......................................................................22
2.(cid:22) Subsystems .......................................................................................27
2.4 Aspectsystems ..................................................................................28
2.5 State of Systems ...............................................................................(cid:22)2
2.6 (cid:37)ehaviour of Systems.......................................................................(cid:22)(cid:22)
2.7 Systems (cid:37)oundary ............................................................................(cid:22)6
2.8 Summary ..........................................................................................(cid:22)7
References ...................................................................................................(cid:22)7
3 System Approaches 39
(cid:22).1 Modelling and Abstraction ...............................................................(cid:22)9
(cid:22).2 (cid:37)lackbox Approach ..........................................................................49
(cid:22).(cid:22) Inductive and Deductive Reasoning .................................................51
(cid:22).4 Types of Models ...............................................................................58
(cid:22).5 Systems Hierarchy of (cid:37)oulding .......................................................69
(cid:22).6 Summary ..........................................................................................7(cid:22)
ix
References ...................................................................................................74
4 Processes 77
4.1 Processes as Interaction ....................................................................77
4.2 Types of Processes ...........................................................................79
4.(cid:22) Primary and Secondary Processes ....................................................84
4.4 Process and Function ........................................................................86
4.5 Systems of Resources .......................................................................89
4.6 (cid:37)ehaviour and Processes ..................................................................90
4.7 Processes and (cid:37)lackbox Approach ...................................................91
4.8 (cid:37)usiness Process Mapping ...............................................................9(cid:22)
4.9 Summary ........................................................................................100
References .................................................................................................101
5 Control of Processes 103
5.1 Generic (cid:38)oncept of (cid:38)ontrol ...........................................................104
5.2 (cid:38)ontrol and Directing .....................................................................107
5.(cid:22) Feedback as (cid:38)ontrol Mechanism ...................................................110
5.4 Feedforward as (cid:38)ontrol Mechanism ..............................................114
5.5 (cid:38)ompleting De(cid:191)ciencies ................................................................119
5.6 Application of (cid:38)ontrol Mechanisms ..............................................120
5.7 Echelons of (cid:38)ontrol ........................................................................124
5.8 (cid:47)aw of Requisite Variety ................................................................125
5.9 Summary ........................................................................................128
References .................................................................................................129
6 Steady-State Model 131
6.1 (cid:37)oundary (cid:38)ontrol ...........................................................................1(cid:22)1
6.2 Input (cid:37)oundary (cid:61)one .....................................................................1(cid:22)7
6.(cid:22) Output (cid:37)oundary (cid:61)one ...................................................................140
6.4 Regulatory (cid:37)oundary (cid:61)one ............................................................14(cid:22)
6.5 (cid:47)imitations of Steady-State Model ................................................145
6.6 Summary ........................................................................................148
References .................................................................................................149
7 Autopoietic Systems 151
7.1 Autopoiesis .....................................................................................151
7.2 Principles of Autopoiesis ................................................................15(cid:22)
7.(cid:22) Autopoiesis and Self-Organisation .................................................154
7.4 Interaction with Environment .........................................................159
7.5 Perception and (cid:38)ognition ...............................................................160
7.6 Allopoietic Systems........................................................................161
7.7 Social Systems as Autopoietic Systems .........................................164
7.8 Summary ........................................................................................166
Contents xi
References .................................................................................................166
8 Complex Adaptive Systems 169
8.1 Dimensions of (cid:38)omplexity.............................................................169
8.2 Attributes of (cid:38)omplex Adaptive Systems ......................................171
8.(cid:22) Fitness (cid:47)andscapes .........................................................................175
8.4 Self-Organisation by (cid:38)omplex Adaptive Systems .........................182
8.5 Recursive (cid:37)ehaviour ......................................................................184
8.6 (cid:38)onnectivity in Human-in(cid:192)uenced Networks ................................185
8.7 Summary ........................................................................................188
References .................................................................................................189
9 Organisations and Breakthrough 191
9.1 Adaptation by Organisations ..........................................................192
9.2 Processes of Foresight ....................................................................201
9.(cid:22) (cid:37)reakthrough Model ......................................................................210
9.4 Differences with Steady-State Model.............................................215
9.5 Summary ........................................................................................216
References .................................................................................................217
10 Applications of System Theories 221
10.1 Systems Engineering ......................................................................221
10.2 (cid:37)iological Systems .........................................................................224
10.(cid:22) Organisations ..................................................................................229
10.4 Other Systems Theories in (cid:37)rief ....................................................2(cid:22)5
10.5 (cid:38)oncluding Remarks ......................................................................244
References .................................................................................................245
Index 249
Synopsis
Systems theories aim at describing objects to undertake studies. This
synopsis introduces the most important concepts and models of Applied
Systems Theory(cid:15) a speci(cid:191)c systems theory(cid:15) to describe and to analyse objects
with the intent of understanding, modifying or predicting their structure and
their behaviour; more detailed and expanded descriptions are found in the
chapters of this book.
I Systems, Entities as Part of a Whole
Machinery, houses, companies, computers, organisms and ecological
networks as examples receive the label of systems when we want to
isolate these objects of study from their environment. Whether it concerns
organisational systems, such as companies and value chains, or technical
systems, for example, ships and control systems, or ecological systems, we
look at the object of study separated from its environment, perform an analysis
and search for solutions to enhance its performance. This search is driven by
uni(cid:84)ue problem de(cid:191)nitions as a leading theme. (cid:38)onse(cid:84)uently, systems are
essentially never the same; they depend on the problem and sometimes on
the person performing the analysis. When we aim at improving the real-time
response from an industrial robot or when the study focuses on designing
the mechanical structure, each of these models of the robot as a system will
differ according to its meaningful purpose denoted by the one who executes
the study. (cid:43)ence, the identi(cid:191)cation of a system is entirely dependent on the
perspective (cid:11)or problem de(cid:191)nition(cid:12) chosen.
Within a system, the elements do have mutual relationships between
each other and with its environment (cid:11)see (cid:41)igure S.(cid:20)(cid:12). (cid:41)or instance, the
quality system of a company might exist out of quality procedures, policies
and guidelines, and at the same time it will link to the environment through
relations with stakeholders, customers and suppliers. These structures
describe the relationships elements do have within the system, which is
called the internal structure, as well as with elements outside the system,
which is named the external structure. For the case of the external structure,
the external elements should be directly connected to elements within the
system. For example, a manufacturing system might consist of pieces of
equipment performing processes and it is coupled with the environment by
the materials and parts delivered to it by suppliers and through the products it
distributes to customers. Although a study attempts to isolate a system from
its environment, the relationships with its environment, called the external
structure, which de(cid:191)nes its purpose within the whole or universe, remains
visible nevertheless.
xiii