AP Biology - Openstax College

1525 Pages·2015·56.37 MB·English

Biology
OpenStax College
Rice University
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Table of Contents
Preface to Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Unit 1. The Chemistry of Life
Chapter1: The Study of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1 The Science of Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Themes and Concepts of Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Chapter2: The Chemical Foundation of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1 Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks . . . . . . 34
2.2 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.3 Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Chapter3: Biological Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.1 Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2 Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3 Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.4 Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.5 Nucleic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Unit 2. The Cell
Chapter4: Cell Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.1 Studying Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.2 Prokaryotic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.3 Eukaryotic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.4 The Endomembrane System and Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.5 The Cytoskeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.6 Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Chapter5: Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.1 Components and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.2 Passive Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.3 Active Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.4 Bulk Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Chapter6: Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.1 Energy and Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.2 Potential, Kinetic, Free, and Activation Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.3 The Laws of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.4 ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.5 Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Chapter7: Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.1 Energy in Living Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
7.2 Glycolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
7.3 Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.4 Oxidative Phosphorylation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.5 Metabolism without Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
7.6 Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid Metabolic Pathways . 214
7.7 Regulation of Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Chapter8: Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
8.1 Overview of Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
8.2 The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . 230
8.3 Using Light Energy to Make Organic Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Chapter9: Cell Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
9.1 Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
9.2 Propagation of the Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
9.3 Response to the Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
9.4 Signaling in Single-Celled Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Chapter10: Cell Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
10.1 Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
10.2 The Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
10.3 Control of the Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
10.4 Cancer and the Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
10.5 Prokaryotic Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Unit 3. Genetics
Chapter11: Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
11.1 The Process of Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
11.2 Sexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Chapter12: Mendel's Experiments and Heredity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
12.1 Mendel’s Experiments and the Laws of Probability . . . . . . . . . . 322
12.2 Characteristics and Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
12.3 Laws of Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Chapter13: Modern Understandings of Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
13.1 Chromosomal Theory and Genetic Linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
13.2 Chromosomal Basis of Inherited Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Chapter14: DNA Structure and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
14.1 Historical Basis of Modern Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
14.2 DNA Structure and Sequencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
14.3 Basics of DNA Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
14.4 DNA Replication in Prokaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
14.5 DNA Replication in Eukaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
14.6 DNA Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Chapter15: Genes and Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
15.1 The Genetic Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
15.2 Prokaryotic Transcription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
15.3 Eukaryotic Transcription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
15.4 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
15.5 Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Chapter16: Gene Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
16.1 Regulation of Gene Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
16.2 Prokaryotic Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
16.3 Eukaryotic Epigenetic Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
16.4 Eukaryotic Transcription Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
16.5 Eukaryotic Post-transcriptional Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . 437
16.6 Eukaryotic Translational and Post-translational Gene Regulation . . . 440
16.7 Cancer and Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Chapter17: Biotechnology and Genomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
17.1 Biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
17.2 Mapping Genomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
17.3 Whole-Genome Sequencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
17.4 Applying Genomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
17.5 Genomics and Proteomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Unit 4. Evolutionary Processes
Chapter18: Evolution and the Origin of Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
18.1 Understanding Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
18.2 Formation of New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
18.3 Reconnection and Rates of Speciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Chapter19: The Evolution of Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
19.1 Population Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
19.2 Population Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
19.3 Adaptive Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Chapter20: Phylogenies and the History of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
20.1 Organizing Life on Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
20.2 Determining Evolutionary Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
20.3 Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Unit 5. Biological Diversity
Chapter21: Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
21.1 Viral Evolution, Morphology, and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
21.2 Virus Infections and Hosts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
21.3 Prevention and Treatment of Viral Infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
21.4 Other Acellular Entities: Prions and Viroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Chapter22: Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
22.1 Prokaryotic Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
22.2 Structure of Prokaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
22.3 Prokaryotic Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
22.4 Bacterial Diseases in Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
22.5 Beneficial Prokaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Chapter23: Protists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
23.1 Eukaryotic Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
23.2 Characteristics of Protists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
23.3 Groups of Protists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
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23.4 Ecology of Protists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
Chapter24: Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
24.1 Characteristics of Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
24.2 Classifications of Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
24.3 Ecology of Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
24.4 Fungal Parasites and Pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
24.5 Importance of Fungi in Human Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
Chapter25: Seedless Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
25.1 Early Plant Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
25.2 Green Algae: Precursors of Land Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
25.3 Bryophytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
25.4 Seedless Vascular Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Chapter26: Seed Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
26.1 Evolution of Seed Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
26.2 Gymnosperms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
26.3 Angiosperms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
26.4 The Role of Seed Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
Chapter27: Introduction to Animal Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
27.1 Features of the Animal Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
27.2 Features Used to Classify Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
27.3 Animal Phylogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
27.4 The Evolutionary History of the Animal Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . 751
Chapter28: Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
28.1 Phylum Porifera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
28.2 Phylum Cnidaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
28.3 Superphylum Lophotrochozoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
28.4 Superphylum Ecdysozoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
28.5 Superphylum Deuterostomia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
Chapter29: Vertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
29.1 Chordates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
29.2 Fishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
29.3 Amphibians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
29.4 Reptiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826
29.5 Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
29.6 Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
29.7 The Evolution of Primates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
Unit 6. Plant Structure and Function
Chapter30: Plant Form and Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
30.1 The Plant Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
30.2 Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856
30.3 Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
30.4 Leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
30.5 Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877
30.6 Plant Sensory Systems and Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884
Chapter31: Soil and Plant Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
31.1 Nutritional Requirements of Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
31.2 The Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
31.3 Nutritional Adaptations of Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
Chapter32: Plant Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
32.1 Reproductive Development and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
32.2 Pollination and Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
32.3 Asexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940
Unit 7. Animal Structure and Function
Chapter33: The Animal Body: Basic Form and Function . . . . . . . . . . . 951
33.1 Animal Form and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952
33.2 Animal Primary Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
33.3 Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968
Chapter34: Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System . . . . . . . . . . . 977
34.1 Digestive Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
34.2 Nutrition and Energy Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989
34.3 Digestive System Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
34.4 Digestive System Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001
Chapter35: The Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009
35.1 Neurons and Glial Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010
35.2 How Neurons Communicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017
35.3 The Central Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
35.4 The Peripheral Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
35.5 Nervous System Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
Chapter36: Sensory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
36.1 Sensory Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
36.2 Somatosensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
36.3 Taste and Smell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
36.4 Hearing and Vestibular Sensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
36.5 Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Chapter37: The Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
37.1 Types of Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
37.2 How Hormones Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090
37.3 Regulation of Body Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093
37.4 Regulation of Hormone Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
37.5 Endocrine Glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
Chapter38: The Musculoskeletal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1119
38.1 Types of Skeletal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1120
38.2 Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1130
38.3 Joints and Skeletal Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137
38.4 Muscle Contraction and Locomotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145
Chapter39: The Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1161
39.1 Systems of Gas Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1162
39.2 Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 1168
39.3 Breathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174
39.4 Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1180
Chapter40: The Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191
40.1 Overview of the Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192
40.2 Components of the Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195
40.3 Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
40.4 Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1207
Chapter41: Osmotic Regulation and Excretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1217
41.1 Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1218
41.2 The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1221
41.3 Excretion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227
41.4 Nitrogenous Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1229
41.5 Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 1232
Chapter42: The Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1241
42.1 Innate Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1242
42.2 Adaptive Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1248
42.3 Antibodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263
42.4 Disruptions in the Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1268
Chapter43: Animal Reproduction and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277
43.1 Reproduction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1278
43.2 Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281
43.3 Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis . . . . . . . . 1283
43.4 Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1290
43.5 Human Pregnancy and Birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1295
43.6 Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development . . . . . . . . . . . 1300
43.7 Organogenesis and Vertebrate Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1305
Unit 8. Ecology
Chapter44: Ecology and the Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1315
44.1 The Scope of Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1316
44.2 Biogeography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1320
44.3 Terrestrial Biomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1326
44.4 Aquatic Biomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1333
44.5 Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change . . . . . . . . . 1340
Chapter45: Population and Community Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1351
45.1 Population Demography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1352
45.2 Life Histories and Natural Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1357
45.3 Environmental Limits to Population Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1361
45.4 Population Dynamics and Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1365
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45.5 Human Population Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1369
45.6 Community Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1373
45.7 Behavioral Biology: Proximate and Ultimate Causes of Behavior . . 1385
Chapter46: Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1401
46.1 Ecology of Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1402
46.2 Energy Flow through Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1410
46.3 Biogeochemical Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415
Chapter47: Conservation Biology and Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . 1431
47.1 The Biodiversity Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1432
47.2 The Importance of Biodiversity to Human Life . . . . . . . . . . . . 1441
47.3 Threats to Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1445
47.4 Preserving Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1452
AAppendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1463
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1493
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