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Analyzing meaning: An introduction to semantics and pragmatics (Textbooks in Language Sciences 5) PDF

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Analyzing meaning An introduction to semantics and pragmatics Second corrected and slightly revised edition Paul R. Kroeger language Textbooks in Language Sciences 5 science press TextbooksinLanguageSciences Editors:StefanMüller,MartinHaspelmath EditorialBoard: ClaudeHagège,MarianneMithun,AnatolStefanowitsch,FoongHaYap Inthisseries: 1. Müller,Stefan. Grammaticaltheory: Fromtransformationalgrammartoconstraint-based approaches. 2. Schäfer,Roland. EinführungindiegrammatischeBeschreibungdesDeutschen. 3. Freitas,MariaJoão&AnaLúciaSantos(eds.). Aquisiçãodelínguamaternaenão materna:Questõesgeraisedadosdoportuguês. 4. Roussarie,Laurent. Sémantiqueformelle: IntroductionàlagrammairedeMontague. 5. Kroeger,Paul. Analyzingmeaning: Anintroductiontosemanticsandpragmatics. ISSN:2364-6209 Analyzing meaning An introduction to semantics and pragmatics Second corrected and slightly revised edition Paul R. Kroeger language science press Kroeger,Paul.2019.Analyzingmeaning:Anintroductiontosemanticsand pragmatics.Secondcorrectedandslightlyrevisededition.(TextbooksinLanguage Sciences5).Berlin:LanguageSciencePress. Thistitlecanbedownloadedat: http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/231 ©2019,PaulR.Kroeger PublishedundertheCreativeCommonsAttribution4.0Licence(CCBY4.0): http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ISBN:978-3-96110-136-8(Digital) 978-3-96110-137-5(Softcover) ISSN:2364-6209 DOI:10.5281/zenodo.2538330 Sourcecodeavailablefromwww.github.com/langsci/231 Collaborativereading:paperhive.org/documents/remote?type=langsci&id=231 Coverandconceptofdesign:UlrikeHarbort Typesetting:FelixKopecky,PaulKroeger,SebastianNordhoff Proofreading: AleksandrsBerdicevskis,AndreasHölzl,AnneKilgus,Bev Erasmus,CarlaParra,CatherineRudin,ChristianDöhler,DavidLukeš,David Nash,EitanGrossman,EugenCostetchi,GuohuaZhang,IkmiNurOktavianti, JeanNitzke,JeroenvandeWeijer,JoséPobleteBravo,JosephDeVeaugh, LachlanMackenzie,LuigiTalamo,MartinHaspelmath,MikeAubrey,Monika Czerepowicka,MykeBrinkerhoff,ParvizParsafar,PriscaJerono,RiteshKumar, SandraAuderset,TorgrimSolstad,VadimKimmelman,VasilikiFoufi Fonts:LinuxLibertine,Arimo,DejaVuSansMono,ARPLUMing Typesettingsoftware:XƎLATEX LanguageSciencePress UnterdenLinden6 10099Berlin,Germany langsci-press.org StorageandcataloguingdonebyFUBerlin Contents Preface xi Abbreviations xiii I Foundationalconcepts 1 1 Themeaningofmeaning 3 1.1 Semanticsandpragmatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 Three“levels”ofmeaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.3 Relationbetweenformandmeaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.4 Whatdoesmeanmean? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.5 Saying,meaning,anddoing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.6 “Moreliesahead”(aroadmap) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2 Referring,denoting,andexpressing 15 2.1 Talkingabouttheworld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.2 Denotationalsemanticsvs.cognitivesemantics . . . . . . . . . 16 2.3 Typesofreferringexpressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.4 Sensevs.denotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.5 Ambiguity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.6 Expressivemeaning:Ouchandoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.6.1 Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.6.2 Nondisplaceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.6.3 Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.6.4 Scalabilityandrepeatability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.6.5 Descriptiveineffability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.6.6 Casestudy:Expressiveusesofdiminutives . . . . . . . . 29 2.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3 Truthandinference 35 3.1 Truthasaguidetosentencemeaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Contents 3.2 Analyticsentences,syntheticsentences,andcontradictions . . . 36 3.3 Meaningrelationsbetweenpropositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.4 Presupposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.4.1 Howtoidentifyapresupposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.4.2 Accommodation:arepairstrategy . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3.4.3 Pragmaticvs.semanticaspectsofpresupposition . . . . 45 3.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4 Thelogicoftruth 53 4.1 Whatlogiccandoforyou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4.2 Validpatternsofinference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 4.3 Propositionallogic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 4.3.1 Propositionaloperators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 4.3.2 Meaningrelationsandrulesofinference . . . . . . . . . 62 4.4 Predicatelogic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 4.4.1 Quantifiers(anintroduction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 4.4.2 Scopeambiguities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 4.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 II Wordmeanings 77 5 Wordsenses 79 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 5.2 Wordmeaningsasconstrualsofexternalreality . . . . . . . . . 79 5.3 Lexicalambiguity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 5.3.1 Ambiguity,vagueness,andindeterminacy . . . . . . . . 80 5.3.2 Distinguishing ambiguity from vagueness and indeter- minacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 5.3.3 Polysemyvs.homonymy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 5.3.4 Onesenseatatime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 5.3.5 Disambiguationincontext . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 5.4 Context-dependentextensionsofmeaning . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 5.4.1 Figurativesenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 5.4.2 Howfigurativesensesbecomeestablished . . . . . . . . 99 5.5 “Facets”ofmeaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 5.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 iv Contents 6 Lexicalsenserelations 107 6.1 Meaningrelationsbetweenwords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 6.2 Identifyingsenserelations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 6.2.1 Synonyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 6.2.2 Antonyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 6.2.3 Hyponymyandtaxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 6.2.4 Meronymy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 6.3 Definingwordsintermsofsenserelations . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 6.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 7 Componentsoflexicalmeaning 119 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 7.2 Lexicalentailments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 7.3 Selectionalrestrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 7.4 Componentialanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 7.5 Verbmeanings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 7.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 III Implicature 137 8 Grice’stheoryofimplicature 139 8.1 Sometimeswemeanmorethanwesay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 8.2 Conversationalimplicatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 8.3 Grice’sMaximsofConversation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 8.4 Typesofimplicatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 8.4.1 GeneralizedConversationalImplicature . . . . . . . . . 146 8.4.2 ConventionalImplicature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 8.5 Distinguishingfeaturesofconversationalimplicatures . . . . . 149 8.6 Howtotellonekindofinferencefromanother . . . . . . . . . . 151 8.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 9 PragmaticinferenceafterGrice 161 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 9.2 MeaningsofEnglishwordsvs.logicaloperators . . . . . . . . . 161 9.2.1 Ontheambiguityofand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 9.2.2 Ontheambiguityofor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 9.3 Explicatures: bridging the gap between what is said vs. what is implicated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 v Contents 9.4 Implicaturesandthesemantics/pragmaticsboundary . . . . . . 170 9.4.1 Whynumeralwordsarespecial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 9.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 10 Indirectspeechacts 179 10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 10.2 Performatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 10.3 Indirectspeechacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 10.4 Indirectspeechactsacrosslanguages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 10.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 11 Conventionalimplicatureanduse-conditionalmeaning 197 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 11.2 Distinguishingtruth-conditionalvs.use-conditionalmeaning . 198 11.2.1 Diagnosticpropertiesofconventionalimplicatures . . . 198 11.2.2 Speaker-orientedadverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 11.3 Japanesehonorifics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 11.4 Koreanspeechstylemarkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 11.5 Otherwaysofmarkingpoliteness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 11.6 DiscourseparticlesinGerman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 11.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 IV Compositionalsemantics 215 12 Howmeaningsarecomposed 217 12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 12.2 Twosimpleexamples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 12.3 Fregeoncompositionalityandsubstitutivity . . . . . . . . . . . 220 12.4 Propositionalattitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 12.5 Dedictovs.dere ambiguity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 12.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 13 Modelingcompositionality 229 13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 13.2 Whyamodelmightbeuseful . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 13.3 Basicconceptsinsettheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 13.3.1 Relationsandfunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 13.3.2 Operationsandrelationsonsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 vi Contents 13.4 Truthrelativetoamodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 13.5 Rulesofinterpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 13.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 14 Quantifiers 253 14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 14.2 Quantifiersasrelationsbetweensets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 14.3 Quantifiersinlogicalform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 14.4 Twotypesofquantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 14.5 Scopeambiguities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 14.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 15 Intensionalcontexts 273 15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 15.2 Whensubstitutivityfails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 15.3 Non-intersectiveadjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 15.4 Otherintensionalcontexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 15.5 Subjunctivemoodasamarkerofintensionality . . . . . . . . . 285 15.6 Definingfunctionsvialambdaabstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 15.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 V Modals,conditionals,andcausation 291 16 Modality 293 16.1 Possibilityandnecessity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 16.2 Therangeofmodalmeanings:strengthvs.typeofmodality . . 294 16.2.1 Aremodalspolysemous? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 16.3 Modalityasquantificationoverpossibleworlds . . . . . . . . . 298 16.3.1 Asimplequantificationalanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 16.3.2 Kratzer’sanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 16.4 Cross-linguisticvariation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 16.5 Onthenatureofepistemicmodality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 16.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 17 Evidentiality 317 17.1 Markersthatindicatethespeaker’ssourceofinformation . . . . 317 17.2 Somecommontypesofevidentialsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 17.3 Evidentialityandepistemicmodality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 vii Contents 17.4 Distinguishingevidentialityfromtenseandmodality . . . . . . 321 17.5 Twotypesofevidentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 17.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 18 Because 329 18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 18.2 Because asatwo-placeoperator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 18.3 Use-conditionalbecause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 18.4 Structuralissues:co-ordinationvs.subordination . . . . . . . . 335 18.5 Twowordsfor‘because’inGerman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 18.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 19 Conditionals 347 19.1 Conditionalsandmodals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 19.2 Fourusesofif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 19.3 Degreesofhypotheticality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 19.4 Englishif vs.materialimplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 19.5 If asarestrictor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 19.6 Counterfactualconditionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 19.7 SpeechActconditionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 19.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 VI Tense&aspect 377 20 AspectandAktionsart 379 20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 20.2 Situationtype(Aktionsart) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 20.3 Timeofspeaking,timeofsituation,and“topictime” . . . . . . . 386 20.4 GrammaticalAspect(=“viewpointaspect”) . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 20.4.1 Typologyofgrammaticalaspect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 20.4.2 ImperfectiveaspectinMandarinChinese . . . . . . . . 391 20.4.3 Perfectandprospectiveaspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 20.4.4 Minoraspectcategories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 20.5 Interactions between situation type (Aktionsart) and grammati- calaspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 20.6 Aspectualsensitivityandcoercioneffects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 20.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 viii

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