AN INTRODUCTION TO CHURCH HISTORY

223 Pages·2013·3.34 MB·English

A I C H
N NTRODUCTION TO HURCH ISTORY:
B 1500
from THE EGINNINGS to
C T
OURSE EXTBOOK
This textbook is based principally on:
Williston Walker, AHistoryoftheChristianChurch,(CharlesScribner’sSons,NewYork1918)
Also included herein are selections and material adapted from the following sources:
Chadwick,HenryTheEarlyChurch,RevisedEdition.(Penguin,1993)
Deansly,Margaret,AHistoryoftheMedievalChurch,590-1500.(Routledge.London.1989)
Dysinger,Luke,“EarlyChristianMonasticism”,TheEncyclopediaofAncientHistory2010.
Logan,F.Donald,AHistoryoftheChurchintheMiddleAges,(Routledge,London.2002)
Vauchez,Andre,TheSpir’tyoftheMedievalWestfromthe8thtothe12th Century,(Cistercian,1993).
1
2
CONTENTS
1.JESUSandtheHELLENISTICWORLD 6.LEADERSHIPandLITURGY
[1.1].TheGeneralSituation; 5 [6.1].TheHierarchicalDevelopmentOf
47
[1.2].TheJewishBackground; 10 TheChurch.
[1.3].JesusandtheDisciples; 13 [6.2].PublicWorshipAnd Sacred
49
Seasons [2.1]2. 1
[ p.92]
2.THEAPOSTOLICCHURCH
[6.3].Baptism 50
[2.1].ThePalestinianChristian
15 [6.4].TheEucharist. 51
Communities
[6.5].ForgivenessOfSins 52
[2.2].PaulandGentileChristianity 17
[6.6].SinnersintheChurch 54
[2.3].TheCloseoftheApostolicAge 20
7.PERSECUTIONand
[2.4].TheInterpretationofJesus 21
TRANSFORMATION
3.GENTILECHURCHandROMAN
[7.1].RestAndGrowth,260-303 55
EMPIRE
[7.2].RivalReligious Forces 55
[3.1].GentileChristianityoftheSecond
Century 25 [7.3].The FinalStruggle 56
[3.2].EarlyClericalOrders 26 [7.4].TheChangedSituation 58
[3.3].Relations ofChristianitytothe 8.THEARIANEMPIRE
28
RomanGovernment [8.1].TheArianControversyToThe
59
[3.4].TheApologists 28 DeathOfConstantine
4.THEGNOSTICCRISIS [8.2].ControversyUnderConstantine's
62
Sons
[4.1].Gnosticism 30
[8.3].TheLaterNiceneStruggle 64
[4.2].Marcion 31
[
9.THEORTHODOXEMPIRE
[4.3].Montanism 32
[4.4].TheCatholicChurch 33 [9.1].ArianMissionsandtheGermanic
67
Invasions
[4.5].TheGrowingImportance
ofRome 35 [9.2].TheGrowthofthePapacy 70
[4.6].Irenæus 36 [9.3].AmbroseAndChrysostom 70
5.CARTHAGEandALEXANDRIA 10.CHRISTIANMONASTICISM
[5.1].TertullianandCyprian 37 [10.1].TheAsceticMovement 72
[5.2].TheTriumphoftheLogos [10.2].Egyptian,Byzantine,and
Christologyinthe West 39 Palestinian Monasticism 74
[5.3].TheAlexandrianSchool 41 [10.3].Evagrius,Cassian, andBenedict 75
[5.4].ChurchAndStatefrom180To260 45 [10.4].Summaryof EarlyMonasticism 76
11.CHRISTOLOGYandDIVISIONS
[11.1].TheChristologicalControversies 81
[11.2].TheEastDivided 86
[11.3].CatastrophesAndFurther
89
Controversies InTheEast
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12.WORSHIPandPIETY 18.MEDIEVALCHURCHandSTATE
[12.1].DevelopingHierarchies. 90 inCONFLICT
[12.2].PublicWorshipAndSacred [18.1] ThePapacyBreaks withthe
Seasons 92 Empire 156
[12.3].DevelopingEucharisticLiturgy 93 [18.2] HildebrandandHenryIV 158
[12.4].TheLiturgyoftheHours 100 [18.3] TheStruggleEndsinCompromise 160
[12.5].PopularChristianPiety 102 19.EXPANSIONandCONFLICT
13. WESTERNTHEOLOGYandISOLATION [19.1] TheGreekChurch afterthe
IconoclasticControversy. 161
[13.1].Some WesternCharacteristics 103
[19.2] TheSpreadoftheChurch 162
[13.2].Jerome 104
[13.3].Augustine 105 20.NEW MOVEMENTSANDSECTS
[13.4].ThePelagianControversy 109 [20.1] TheCrusades 163
[13.5].Semi-Pelagianism 111 [20.2] NewReligiousMovements 168
[13.6].GregorytheGreat 112 [20.3] HereticalSects.CathariAnd
Waldenses.TheInquisition
169
THEPATRISTICERA–ASUMMARY 114
21.FRIARSandLEARNING
14.BYZANTIUMandtheRISEofISLAM
[21.1] TheDominicansand Franciscans 172
[14.1]Justinian 117
[21.2] EarlyScholasticism 176
[14.2].TheLombards 120
[21.3] TheUniversities 179
[14.3].TheRiseofIslam 121
[21.4] High ScholasticismAnd Its
15.MONASTICMISSIONandthe Theology
179
TRANSMISSIONofLEARNING
22.MYSTICSandSPIRITUALWRITERS
[15.1].MissionsintheBritishIslands 128
[22.1] Medieval Mysticism 185
[15.2].ContinentalMissionsandPapal
[22.2] FromEckharttothe Devotio
Growth 130
Moderna
190
[15.3]TheTransmissionofLearning 132
23.PAPALLEADERSHIPandSCHISM
[15.4]ArtandIconoclasm 135
[23.1] MissionsandDefeats. 192
16.THECAROLINGIANEMPIRE
[23.2] ThePapacyatits Heightandits
[16.1].TheFranksandThePapacy 139 Decline...
193
[16.2].Charlemagne 140 [23.3] ThePapacyinAvignon,Criticism.
[16.3].EcclesiasticalInstitutions 143 TheSchism..
197
[16.4]..CollapsingEmpireandRising
24.NATIONALISMandCONCILIARISM
Papacy 143
[24.1] WyclifandHuss 200
17.INVASION,DECAY,andREFORM
[24.2] TheReformingCouncils 204
[17.1]VikingInvasions 139 [24.3].TheItalianRenaissanceand Its
[17.2]PapalDeclineandRenewalbythe Popes
207
RevivedEmpire. 151 [24.4] TheNewNational Powers 211
[17.3]ReformMovements 153 [24.5].RenaissanceandOtherInfluences
[17.4]TheReform PartySecuresthe NorthOfTheAlps
214
Papacy 155
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1. JESUS and the HELLENISTIC WORLD
Walker,“PeriodI.FromtheBeginningstotheGnosticCrisis”.1.1-1.3,pp.1-18:
[1].1..THE GENERALSITUATION
THEbirthofChristsawthelands whichsurroundedtheMediterraneaninthepossessionofRome.Toa
degreeneverbeforeequalled,andunapproachedinmodern times,thesevastterritories,whichembraced
allthatcommon men knewofcivilizedlife,wereundertheswayofasingletypeofculture.The
civilizationsofIndiaorofChinadidnotcomewithinthevisionoftheordinaryinhabitantoftheRoman
Empire. Outsideits bordersheknewonlysavage orsemicivilizedtribes.TheRomanEmpireandthe
worldofcivilized menwerecoextensive.Allwas heldtogetherbyallegiancetoasingleEmperor,andby
acommon militarysystemsubjecttohim. TheRoman army,smallincomparisonwiththatofamodern
militarystate,wasadequatetopreservetheRomanpeace.Underthatpeacecommerceflourished,
communicationwasmadeeasybyexcellentroads andbysea,andamongeducated men, atleastinthe
largertowns,acommonlanguage,thatofGreece,facilitatedtheinterchangeofthought.Itwasan empire
that,inspiteofmanyevilrulersandcorruptlower officials,securedarough justicesuchastheworld had
neverbeforeseen;andits citizenswereproudofit andofitsachievements.
Yetwithallitsunityofimperialauthorityand militarycontrol,Romewas farfromcrushinglocal
institutions.Indomesticmatterstheinhabitantsoftheprovinceswerelargelyself-governing.Theirlocal
religiousobservancesweregenerallyrespected. Amongthemasses theancientlanguagesand customs
persisted.Evennativerulerswereallowed alimitedswayinportionsoftheempire,asnativestates still
persistunderBritishruleinIndia.Such alandwas PalestineatthetimeofChrist’sbirth.Notalittleofthe
successofRomeas mistressofitsdiversesubjectpopulationwas duetothisconsideratetreatmentoflocal
rightsandprejudices.Thediversityintheempirewasscarcelylessremarkablethanitsunity.This variety
wasnowheremoreapparentthanintherealmof religiousthought.
Christianityenterednoemptyworld.Itsadventfoundmen’s mindsfilledwithconceptionsofthe
universe,ofreligion,ofsin,andofrewardsandpunishments,withwhichithadtoreckon andtowhichit
hadtoadjustitself.Christianitycouldnotbuildonvirginsoil.Theconceptionswhichitfoundalready
existingformed muchofthematerialwithwhichitmusterectitsstructure.Manyoftheseideasareno
longerthoseofthemodernworld.Thefactofthis inevitableintermixturecompels thestudentto
distinguishthepermanentfromthetransitoryinChristianthought,thoughtheprocessisoneofexceeding
difficulty, andthesolutions givenbyvarious scholarsarediverse.
Certainfactorsintheworldofthoughtintowhich Christianitycamebelongtouniversalancientreligion
andareof greatantiquity.Allmen,exceptafew representativesofphilosophicalsophistication,believed
intheexistenceofapower,orofpowers,invisible,superhuman,andeternal,controllinghumandestiny,
andtobeworshippedor placatedbyprayer,ritual,orsacrifice.The earthwas viewed asthecenterofthe
universe.Arounditthesun,planets,andstarsran theircourses.Aboveitwastheheaven;belowtheabode
ofdepartedspiritsorofthewicked.No conceptionofscienceorthelawsofnaturehadpenetratedthe
popularmind.Alltheongoingsofnatureweretheworkofinvisiblepowers of good andevil,whoruled
arbitrarily. Miracleswere,therefore,toberegardednotmerelyas possible;theyweretobeexpected
wheneverthehigher forceswouldimpressmenwiththeimportantortheunusual.Theworldwas the
abodeofinnumerablespirits,righteous or malevolent,whotouchedhuman lifeinallitsphases,and who
evenenteredintosuchpossessionofmen astocontroltheiractions for good orill.Aprofoundsenseof
unworthiness,ofilldesert,andofdissatisfaction withtheexistingconditionsoflifecharacterizedthemass
ofmankind.Thevariedformsof religious manifestationwereevidencesoftheuniversalneedofbetter
relationswiththespiritualandunseen,andofmen’s longingforhelp greaterthananytheycould giveone
another.
GreekPhilosophy
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Besidesthesegeneralconceptionscommontopopularreligion,theworld intowhichChristianitycame
owedmuchtothespecificinfluenceofGreekthought.Hellenisticideasdominatedtheintelligenceofthe
RomanEmpire,buttheir swaywasextensiveonlyamongthemorecultivatedportionofthepopulation.
Greekphilosophicspeculationatfirstconcerneditselfwiththeexplanationofthephysicaluniverse. Yet
withHeraclitusofEphesus (aboutB.C.490),thoughallwasviewed asinasensephysical,theuniverse,
whichisinconstantflow,isregardedas fashioned byafieryelement,theall-penetratingreason,of which
men’ssouls areapart.HerewasprobablythegermoftheLogos conceptionwhichwastoplaysuch arole
inlaterGreekspeculationandChristiantheology.As yetthisshapingelementwasundistinguishedfrom
materialwarmthorfire. Anaxagoras ofAthens (aboutB.C.500-428)taughtthatashapingmind (voûs)
actedintheorderingofmatterandisindependentofit.ThePythagoreans, ofsouthern Italy,heldthat
spiritisimmaterial,andthatsoulsarefallenspiritsimprisonedin materialbodies.Tothisbeliefin
immaterial existencetheyseemtohavebeenled bya considerationofthepropertiesofnumbers—
permanenttruthsbeyond therealmofmatterandnotmateriallydiscerned.
Socrates andPlato
ToSocrates(B.C.470?-399)theexplanationofmanhimself,notoftheuniverse,was theprimeobject
ofthought. Man’sconduct,thatismorals,wasthemostimportantthemeofinvestigation.Rightactionis
basedon knowledge,and willresultinthefourvirtues—prudence,courage,self-control,andjustice—
which,asthe“naturalvirtues,”weretohavetheir eminentplacein mediaevalChristiantheology.This
identificationofvirtuewithknowledge,thedoctrinethattoknow willinvolvedoing,wasindeeda
disastrous legacytoallGreekthinking, andinfluentialinmuchChristianspeculation,notablyinthe
Gnosticismofthesecond century.
In Socrates’sdisciple,Plato(B.C.427-347),theearlyGreekmindreached itshighestspiritual
attainment.Heisproperlydescribableasamanof mysticalpiety,as wellasoftheprofoundestspiritual
insight.ToPlatothepassingformsofthisvisibleworld givenorealknowledge.Thatknowledgeofthe
trulypermanentand realcomes fromour acquaintancewiththe“ideas,”thosechangelessarchetypal,
universalpatterns which existintheinvisiblespiritualworld—the“intelligible”world,since known by
reasonratherthanbythesenses—and givewhateverofrealityis sharedbythepassingphenomenapresent
tooursenses.Thesoul knewthese“ideas”inpreviousexistence.Thephenomenaofthevisibleworldcall
toremembrancetheseonceknown “ideas.”Thesoul,existingbeforethebody,mustbeindependentofit,
andnotaffectedbyits decay.This conceptionofimmortalityasan attributeofthesoul,notshared bythe
body,was always influentialinGreekthoughtand stoodinsharpcontrasttotheHebrewdoctrineof
resurrection.All “ideas”arenotofequalworth.Thehighestarethoseofthetrue,thebeautiful,and
especiallyofthegood.A clearperceptionofapersonalGod,as embodiedinthe“idea”ofthegood, was
perhapsnotattainedbyPlato;buthecertainlyapproached closelytoit.The goodrulestheworld,not
chance.Itis thesourceofalllessergoods,anddesires tobeimitatedintheactions ofmen.Therealmof
“ideas”isthetruehomeofthesoul,whichfindsits highestsatisfactionincommunionwiththem.
Salvationistherecoveryofthevisionoftheeternalgoodness andbeauty.
Aristotle
Aristotle(B.C.384-322)wasofafarless mysticalspiritthanPlato.Tohimthevisibleworldwasan
unquestionedreality.Hediscarded Plato’ssharpdiscriminationbetween “ideas”andphenomena. Neither
existwithouttheother.Eachexistenceis asubstance,theresult,saveinthecaseof God,whoispurely
immaterial,oftheimpressof“idea,”astheformativeforce,on matterwhichis thecontent.Matterin
itselfis onlypotentialsubstance.Ithas alwaysexisted, yetnever withoutform.Hencetheworldiseternal,
forarealmof “ideas”antecedenttotheirmanifestationinphenomenadoes notexist.Theworldisthe
primeobjectofknowledge, andAristotleisthereforeinatruesenseascientist.Its changesdemandthe
initiationofa“primemover,”whoisHimselfunmoved.HenceAristotlepresents thiscelebratedargument
fortheexistenceofGod. Butthe“primemover”works withintelligentpurpose,andGodis,therefore,not
onlythebeginningbuttheendoftheprocessoftheworld’s development.Manbelongstotheworldof
substances,butinhimthereisnotmerelythebodyandsensitive “soul”oftheanimal;thereisalsoa
divinespark,aLogoswhichheshares withGod,andwhichiseternal,though,unlike Plato’s conception
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ofspirit,essentiallyimpersonal.In moralsAristotleheldthathappiness,or well-being,is theaim,andis
attainedbyacarefulmaintenanceofthegolden mean.
Greekphilosophydidnotadvancemuchscientificallybeyond Platoand Aristotle,buttheyhadlittle
directinfluenceatthetimeofChrist.TwocenturiesandahalfafterHisbirth,amodifiedPlatonism,Neo-
Platonism,wastoarise,ofgreatimportance,whichprofoundlyaffectedChristiantheology,notablythatof
Augustine.Aristotlewas powerfullytoinfluencethescholastictheologyofthelater MiddleAges.Those
olderGreekphilosophers hadviewed man chieflyinthelightofhisvaluetothestate.Theconquestsof
Alexander,whodiedB. C.323,wroughtagreatchangeinmen’soutlook.Hellenicculturewasplanted
widelyovertheEastern world,butthesmallGreekstates collapsedas independentpoliticalentities.Itwas
difficultlongertofeelthatdevotiontothenewandvastpoliticalunits thatalittle,independentAthens
had,forinstance,wonfromits citizens.Theindividualasanindependententitywas emphasized.
Philosophyhadtobeinterpretedintermsofindividuallife.Howcouldtheindividualmakethemost of
himself?Two greatanswerswere given,oneofwhichwaswhollyforeigntothegeniusofChristianity,
andcouldnotbeusedbyit;theotheronlypartiallyforeign,andthereforedestinedprofoundlytoinfluence
Christiantheology.ThesewereEpicureanismand Stoicism.
Epicurianism
Epicurus(B.C.342-270),mostofwhoselifewas spentinAthens,taughtthatmentalblissisthehighest
aimofman. Thisstateismostperfectwhenpassive. Itistheabsenceofallthatdisturbsandannoys.
HenceEpicurushimself doesnotdeservethereproachesoftencastuponhissystem. Indeed,inhis own
life,hewas anascetic.Theworstfoesofmentalhappinesshetaughtaregroundlessfears. Ofthesethe
chiefaredreadoftheangerofthegods andofdeath.Botharebaseless.The gods exist,buttheydid not
createnordotheygovern theworld,whichEpicurusholds,withDemocritus (B.C.470?-380?),was
formedbythechanceandever-changingcombinationsofeternallyexistingatoms.Allis material,even
thesoulofman andthegods themselves. Deathendsall,butisnoevil,sinceinitthereisno
consciousnessremaining. Hence, asfaras itwas areligion,Epicureanismwasoneofindifference.The
schoolspreadwidely.TheRomanpoet Lucretius(B.C.98?-55),inhis brilliant DeRerumNatura, gave
expressiontotheworthiersideofEpicureanism;buttheinfluenceofthesystemas awholewas
destructiveandtowardasensualviewofhappiness.
ContemporarilywithEpicurus,Euhemerus(aboutB.C.300)taughtthatthe godsoftheold religions
weresimplydeified men,aboutwhommythsandtraditionhadcastahaloofdivinity. Hefound a
translatorandadvocateintheRomanpoetEnnius (B.C.239?-170?).ParallelwithEpicureanism,in the
teachingofPyrrhoofElis(B.C.360?-270?),andhis followers,awhollyscepticalpointofviewwas
presented.Not merelycantherealnatureofthingsneverbeunderstood,butthebestcourseofactionis
equallydubious. InpracticePyrrhofound,likeEpicurus,theidealoflifeoneofwithdrawalfromall that
annoysordisturbs. Withallthesetheories Christianitycouldhavenothingincommon,andtheyinturn
didnotaffectit.
Stoicism
TheothergreatanswerwasthatofStoicism,thenoblesttypeof ancientpagan ethicalthought,the
nearestinsomerespects toChristianity, andinothersremotefromit. ItsleaderswereZeno (B.C.?-264?),
Cleanthes(B.C.301?-232?),andChrysippus(B. C.280?-207?).ThoughdevelopedinAthens,it
flourishedbestoutsideofGreece,andnotablyinRome,whereSeneca(B.C.3?-A.D.65),Epictetus (A.
D.60?-?),andtheEmperor,MarcusAurelius(A. D.121-180),had greatinfluence. Itwas powerfully
representedinTarsus duringtheearlylifeoftheApostlePaul.Stoicismwas primarilyagreatethical
system, yetnotwithoutclaimstobeconsideredareligion.Itsthoughtoftheuniversewas curiously
materialistic.Allthatisrealisphysical.Yetthereis greatdifferenceinthefineness ofbodies,andthe
coarserarepenetratedbythefiner.Hencefineand coarsecorrespondroughlytothecommondistinctions
betweenspiritand matter.Stoicismapproximated, thoughitmuchmodified,theviewofHeraclitus.The
sourceof all,andtheshaping,harmonizinginfluenceintheuniverseisthevitalwarmth, fromwhich all
hasdevelopedbydifferingdegreesoftension,whichinterpenetrates allthings,andtowhichallwill
return.FarmorethanHeraclitus’sfire, whichitresembles,itistheintelligent,self-consciousworld-soul,
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anallindwellingreason,Logosofwhichourreasonisapart. ItisGod,thelifeandwisdomofall. Itis
trulywithinus. Wecan “followtheGodwithin”;andbyreasonofitonecansay,asCleanthes did of
Zeus;“Wetoo arethyoffspring.”Thepopular godsaresimplynamesfortheforcesthatstreamoutfrom
God.
Sinceonewisdomexistsinalltheworld,thereis onenaturallaw,oneruleofconductfor allmen.All
aremorallyfree.‘SinceallarefromGod,allmen arebrothers.Differences instationinlifeareaccidental.
Tofollowreasonintheplaceinwhichonefinds oneselfisthehighestduty, andis equallypraiseworthy
whetheramanisanEmperororaslave.Sotoobeyreason,theLogos,is thesoleobjectofpursuit.
Happinessisnojustaim, thoughdutydonebrings acertainhappinesspurelyas aby-product.Thechief
enemies ofaperfectobediencearepassions andlusts,whichpervertthejudgment.Thesemustresolutely
beputaside.Godinspires allgoodacts,thoughthenotionofGodisessentiallypantheistic.
Thestrenuous asceticattitudeofStoicism,itsdoctrineoftheall-pervadingandall-rulingdivine
wisdom,Logosits insistencethatallwhodowellareequallydeserving,whatevertheirstation,and its
assertionoftheessentialbrotherhoodof allmen,wereprofoundlytoaffect Christiantheology.Inits
highestrepresentativesthecreedanditsresultswerenoble.Itwas,however,toooftenhard,narrow, and
unsympathetic.It wasforthefew. Itrecognizedthatthemanycouldneverreachitsstandards. Its spirit
wastoooftenoneofpride.ThatofChristianityis oneofhumility.Stillitproducedremarkableeffects.
StoicismgaveRomeexcellentEmperorsand manylesserofficials.Though itneverbecameareally
popularcreed,itwasfollowedbymanyofhighinfluenceandpositionintheRoman world,and modified
Romanlawforthebetter.Itintroducedintojurisprudencetheconceptionofalawofnature,expressedin
reason,and aboveallarbitraryhumanstatutes.Byits doctrinethatallmen arebynatureequal,the worst
featuresofslaveryweregraduallyameliorated,andRomancitizenshipwidelyextended.
PopularReligion
OnemaysaythatthebesteducatedthoughtinRomeandtheprovinces,bythetimeofChrist,inspiteof
wide-spreadEpicureanismandScepticism,inclinedtopantheisticMonotheism,totheconceptionofGod
as good,in contrasttothenon-moralcharacterof theoldGreekandRomandeities,tobeliefinaruling
divineprovidence,tothethoughtthattruereligion isnotceremoniesbutan imitationofthemoral
qualitiesofGod,andtowardahumanerattitudeto men.Thetwoelementslackinginthiseducated
philosophywerethoseofcertaintysuch ascouldonlybegivenbybeliefin adivinerevelation,andofthat
loyaltytoapersonwhich Christianitywastoemphasize.
Thecommonpeople,however,sharedinfewofthesebenefits.Theylayin gross superstition.Ifthe grip
oftheoldreligionsofGreeceandRomehadlargelyrelaxed,theynevertheless believedin godsmanyand
lordsmany.Everytown haditspatron godorgoddess,everytrade,thefarm,thespring,thehousehold,the
chiefevents oflife, marriage,childbirth.Theseviews,too,wereultimatelytoappearinChristianhistory
transmutedintosaint-worship.Spothsayers and magiciansdrove athrivingtradeamongtheignorant,and
noneweremorepatronizedthanthoseofJewishrace.Aboveall,thecommonpeoplewereconvincedthat
themaintenanceofthehistoricreligious cultoftheancient godswasnecessaryforthesafetyand
perpetuityofthestate. Ifnotobserved,thegodswreakedvengeancein calamities—anopinionthatwas
thesourceof muchlater persecutionofChristianity. Thesepopularideaswerenotvigorouslyopposedby
thelearned, wholargelyheldthattheoldreligions hadapolicevalue.Theyregardedthestateceremonies
asanecessityforthecommonman.Senecaputthephilosophicalopinionbluntlywhenhedeclared that“
thewisemanwillobserveallreligioususagesas commandedbythelaw,notaspleasingtothegods.”The
lowestpointinpopularreligious feelingintheRomanEmpirecorresponds roughlytothetimeofthebirth
ofChrist.
WorshipoftheState
TheablerEmperors strovetostrengthenand modifytheancientpopular worships,forpatrioticreasons,
intoworshipofthestate andofitshead.ThispatrioticdeificationoftheRomanstatebegan,indeed, inthe
days oftherepublic.Theworshipofthe“DeaRoma”maybefoundin Smyrnaasearlyas B.C.195.This
reverencewasstrengthenedbythepopularityoftheempireintheprovinces as securingthembetter
8
governmentthanthatoftherepublic.As earlyas B.C.29,Pergamumhad atempletoRomeand
Augustus.Thisworship,directedtotherulerastheembodimentofthestate,orrathertohis “genius”or
indwellingspirit,spread rapidly. Itsoonhadanelaboratepriesthoodunder statepatronage,dividedand
organizedbyprovinces, andcelebratingnotonlyworshipbutannualgames onalargescale. Itwas
probablythemosthighlydevelopedorganization ofaprofessedlyreligious characterundertheearly
empire,andthedegreeto whichitultimatelyaffectedChristianinstitutionsawaitsfurtherinvestigation.
Fromamodernpointofviewtherewas much moreofpatriotismthanofreligioninthis system.Christian
missionariesinJapanhavesolvedasimilar,thoughprobablyless difficult,situationbyholdingreverence
totheEmperortobepurelypatriotic.ButearlyChristianfeelingregarded thisworshipoftheEmperoras
utterlyirreconcilablewithallegiancetoChrist.ThefeelingisshowninthedescriptionofPergamumin
Revelation2:13.Christianrefusaltorendertheworshipseemedtreasonable,andwas the greatoccasionof
themartyrdoms.
Menneedareligiondeeperthanphilosophyorceremonies.Philosophysatisfiesonlytheexceptional
man.Ceremonies availfarmore,butnotthosewhosethoughts areactive,orwhosesenseofpersonal
unworthinessis keen.Some attemptwasmadeto revivethedyingolderpopularpaganism.The earlier
Emperorswere,manyofthem,extensivebuilders andpatronsoftemples.Themostnotable efforttoeffect
arevivalandpurificationofpopularreligionwasthatofPlutarch(A. D.46?-120?),ofChseroneain
Greece,which mayserveas typicalofothers.Hecriticisedthetraditionalmythology.Allthatimplied
cruelormorallyunworthyactionsonthepartofthegodsherejected.There isoneGod.Allthepopular
godsareHisattributespersonified,orsubordinatespirits.Plutarchhadfaithinoracles,special
providences, andfutureretribution.Hetaughtastrenuousmorality.Hisattempttowakeupwhatwasbest
inthedyingolderpaganismwas ahopelesstaskandwonfewfollowers.
MysteryReligions
The greatmajorityofthosewhofeltreligiouslongingssimplyadoptedOrientalreligions,especially
thoseofaredemptivenatureinwhich‘mysticism orsacramentalismwere prominentfeatures.Easeof
communication,andespeciallythegreatinflux ofOrientalslavesintothewesternportionoftheRoman
worldduringthelaterrepublicfacilitatedthisprocess.Thespreadofthesefaiths independentof,and toa
certainextentasrivalsof,Christianityduringthefirstthreecenturiesofour eramadethatepochoneof
deepeningreligiousfeelingthroughouttheempire,and,inthatsense,undoubtedlyfacilitatedtheultimate
triumphofChristianity.
OnesuchOrientalreligion,ofconsiderablyextendedappeal,thoughwithlittleoftheelementof
mystery,wasJudaism,whichbecauseofitsuniversally-acknowledgedantiquitywouldbelargely
exemptedfromparticipationinthestateand Imperialcults.Thepopular mindturnedmorelargelytoother
Orientalcults,ofgreatermystery,orratheroflargerredemptivesacramentalsignificance.Theirmeaning
forthereligiousdevelopmentoftheRoman worldhas beenonlyrecentlyappreciatedatanythinglikeits
truevalue.Themostpopularofthese OrientalreligionswerethoseoftheGreat Mother(Cybele)and
Attis,originatinginAsiaMinor;of Isis and SerapisfromEgypt;andofMithras from Persia. Atthesame
timetherewas muchsyncretisticmixtureofthesereligions,onewithanother,andwiththeolderreligions
ofthelandstowhichtheycame.ThatoftheGreat Mother, whichwas essentiallyaprimitivenature
worship,accompaniedbyviolentrites [thepriests aresaidtohaveflagellatedandcastratedthemselves
duringfestalprocessions],reachedRomeinB.C.204,andwas thefirsttogain extensivefootholdinthe
West.Thatof Isisand Serapis,withitsemphasis onregenerationand afuturelife,waswellestablishedin
RomebyB.C.80,buthadlongtoenduregovernmentalopposition.ThatofMithras,themostwidespread
ofall,thoughhavinganextendedhistoryintheEast,didnotbecomeconspicuousatRometilltowardthe
yearA. D.100,andits greatspreadwasinthelatterpartofthesecond and duringthethird centuries.It
wasespeciallybelovedofsoldiers.Inthelater years,atleastofitsprogress intheRomanEmpire, Mithras
wasidentifiedwiththesun—theSolInvictus oftheEmperors justbeforeConstantine. Likeotherreligions
ofPersianorigin,its viewoftheuniversewas dualistic.
Allthesereligionstaught aredeemer-god.Allheldthattheinitiatesharedinsymbolic(sacramental)
fashiontheexperiencesofthegod,diedwithhim, rosewithhim,becamepartakersofthedivinenature,
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usuallythroughamealsharedsymbolicallywithhim,andparticipatedinhis immortality.Allhad secret
rites fortheinitiated.Allofferedmystical(sacramental)cleansingfromsin.InthereligionofIsis and
Serapis thatcleansingwasbybathinginsacredwater;inthoseoftheGreatMother andofMithrasbythe
bloodofabull,thetaurobolium,bywhich,as recordedininscriptions,theinitiatewas “rebornforever.”
Allpromisedahappyfuturelifeforthefaithful.Allweremoreorless asceticintheirattitudetoward the
world.Some,likeMithraism,taughtthebrotherhoodand11essentialequalityofalldisciples.Therecan
benodoubtthatthedevelopmentoftheearlyChristiandoctrineofthesacraments wasaffected,ifnot
directlybythesereligions,atleastbythereligious atmospherewhichtheyhelpedtocreateandtowhich
theywerecongenial.
TheSituationinthePaganWorld
InsummingupthesituationinthepaganworldatthecomingofChrist,onemustsaythat,amid great
confusion,andinamultitudeofformsofexpression,someofthemveryunworthy, certainreligious
demandsareevident.Areligionthatshouldmeettherequirementsoftheagemustteachone righteous
God, yetfindplacefornumerousspirits, goodandbad.Itmustpossess adefiniterevelationofthewillof
God,asinJudaism,thatisanauthoritativescripture.Itmustinculcateaworld-denyingvirtue,based on
moralactionsagreeabletothewillandcharacterofGod. Itmustholdforthafuturelifewithrewards and
punishments.Itmusthaveasymbolicinitiationandpromisearealforgiveness ofsins.It mustpossessa
redeemer-godintounion withwhommencould comebycertainsacramentalacts. Itmustteachthe
brotherhoodofallmen,atleastofalladherentsofthereligion.Howeversimplethebeginningsof
Christianitymayhavebeen,Christianitymustpossess,ortakeon,allthese traits ifitwastoconquerthe
RomanEmpireortobecome aworldreligion.Itcame “inthefulness oftime”inamuchlargersensethan
wasformerlythought;andnoonewhobelieves in anoverrulingprovidenceofGodwilldenythe
fundamentalimportanceofthismightypreparation,evenifsomeofthefeaturesofChristianity’s early
developmentbearthestampandlimitations ofthetimeandhavetobeseparatedfromtheeternal.
[1].2.THE JEWISH BACKGROUND
TheexternalcourseofeventshadlargelydeterminedthedevelopmentofJudaisminthesix centuries
precedingthebirthofChrist.Judaeahadbeenunderforeignpolitical controlsincetheconquestof
JerusalembyNebuchadrezzar,B.C.586. Ithadsharedthefortunesofthe oldAssyrianEmpireand ofits
successors,the PersianandthatofAlexander.Afterthebreak-upofthelatteritcameunderthecontrolof
thePtolemiesofEgyptandthenoftheSeleuciddynastyof Antioch. While thuspoliticallydependent,its
religiousinstitutionswerepracticallyundisturbedaftertheirrestorationconsequentuponthePersian
conquestofBabylonia;andthehereditarypriestlyfamiliesweretherealnativearistocracyoftheland.In
theirhigherranks theycametobemarkedbypoliticalinterestandreligious indifference.Thehigh-
priesthoodinparticularbecameacovetedofficebyreasonofitspecuniaryandpoliticalinfluence. Withit
wasassociated,certainlyfromtheGreekperiod,abodyofadvisers andlegalinterpreters,theSanhedrim,
ultimatelyseventy-oneinnumber. Thus administered,thetempleanditspriesthoodcametorepresentthe
moreformalaspectofthereligiouslifeoftheHebrews.Ontheotherhand,thefeelingthattheywerea
holypeoplelivingunderYahwe’sholylaw,theirsenseofreligious separatism,andthecomparative
cessationofprophecy,turnedthenationtothestudyofthelaw,which was interpretedbyanever-
increasingmassoftradition.As inMuslimlands to-day,theJewishlawwasatoncereligiouspreceptand
civilstatute.Itsinterpreters,thescribes,becamemoreand moretherealreligious leadersofthepeople.
Judaism grewtobe,inever-increasingmeasure,thereligionofasacredscriptureanditsmassof
interpretativeprecedent.Forafullerunderstandingand administrationofthelaw,andforprayer and
worship,thesynagoguedevelopedwhereverJudaismwas represented. Its originisuncertain, goingback
probablytotheExile.In itstypicalformitwas alocalcongregationincludingallJewsofthedistrict
presidedoverbyagroup of“elders,”havingoften a“ruler”atitshead.Thesewereempoweredto
excommunicateandpunishoffenders.Theservices wereverysimpleandcouldbeledbyanyHebrew,
thoughusuallyunder “arulerofthesynagogue.”Theyincludedprayer,thereadingofthelawandthe
prophets,theirtranslationandexposition(sermon),andthebenediction.Becauseoftheunrepresentative
characterofthepriesthood,andthegrowingimportanceofthesynagogues, thetemple,thoughhighly
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