An Explanatory Model for the Relationship between Motivation in Sport, Victimization, and Video

15 Pages·2017·1.44 MB·English

International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Article
An Explanatory Model for the Relationship between
Motivation in Sport, Victimization, and Video Game
Use in Schoolchildren
ManuelCastro-Sánchez1 ID,RamónChacón-Cuberos2,* ID,JoséLuisUbago-Jiménez3 ID,
EdsonZafra-Santos4andFélixZurita-Ortega3 ID
1 DepartmentofEducation,UniversityofAlmería,04120Almería,Spain;[email protected]
2 DepartmentofIntegratedDidactics,UniversityofHuelva,21007Huelva,Spain
3 DepartmentofDidacticsofMusical,PlasticandCorporalExpression,UniversityofGranada,
18071Granada,Spain;[email protected](J.L.U.-J.);[email protected](F.Z.-O.)
4 KinesiologySchool,UniversitySantoTomas,837003Santiago,Chile;[email protected]
* Correspondence:[email protected];Tel.:[phone]
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:1)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)(cid:8)(cid:1)
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)
Received:4August2018;Accepted:24August2018;Published:29August2018
Abstract: (1)Background: Societyischangingamazinglyfast,andthisisbringingaboutchangesin
thewaythatpeoplespendtheirfreetime. Inthe21stcentury,freetimeisincreasinglyspentusing
technologicaldevicessuchasvideogames,thusincreasinglevelsofsedentariness. Theaimofthe
presentstudywastodefineanexplanatorymodelfortheproblematicuseofvideogames,physical
activity, motivational climate in sports, and victimization in schoolchildren, and to analyze the
relationshipsbetweenthesevariablesaccordingtogender;(2)Methods: Atotalof734schoolchildren,
of both sexes, participated in this research study. They were aged from 10 to 12 and lived in the
provinceofGranada(Spain). ThemaininstrumentsusedwerethequestionnairesPMCSQ-2,PAQ-C,
QERV, and SVS. A multigroup structural equation model was used, which had an excellent fit
(χ2 =319.472;df=72;p<0.001;CFI=0.962;NFI=0.952;IFI=0.962;RMSEA=0.048);(3)Results:
Thepracticeofphysicalactivitywasrelatednegativelyandindirectlytotheproblematicuseofvideo
games((r=−0.085,boys);(r=−0.081,girls)),andthisinturnwasrelatedpositivelyanddirectlyto
victimization((r=0.094,boys);(r=0.174,girls)). Additionally,taskclimatewasinverselyrelated
totheproblematicuseofvideogamesforgirls(r=−0.133),andegoclimatewasdirectlyrelatedto
theuseofthesedevicesonlywithregardtoboys(r=0.250). (4)Conclusions: Itmustbenotedthat
schoolchildren’spathologicaluseofvideogamesiscloselyrelatedtolowerlevelsofphysicalactivity.
Inaddition,thosemotivationalclimatesinsportsthatareorientedtowardsperformanceexacerbate
thispathologicalbehavior,whichaccentuatestheimportanceofpromotingmotivationalclimates
thatareorientedtowardstasksinschoolchildren.
Keywords: motivational climate in sport; physical activity; bullying; problematic use of video
games;children
1. Introduction
Society is changing at an unprecedented rate, which is affecting the way in which people
spendtheirfreetime. Theyoungestinsocietywereborninthemiddleofthe“technologicalera”,
their growing up coinciding with an unstoppable surge in technological advancement and the
developmentofelectronicentertainmentdevicesneverseenbefore[1,2]. Therefore,inthe21stcentury,
societyisfacingtheproblemofthepathologicaluseofdigitalentertainmentdevices,whichisespecially
prevalentintheyoungestsectorsofthepopulation,suchasschoolchildren[3].
Int.J.Environ.Res.PublicHealth2018,15,1866;doi:10.3390/ijerph15091866 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int.J.Environ.Res.PublicHealth2018,15,1866 2of15
Authors such as Chacón-Cuberos et al. [4] or Verheijen et al. [5], indicate that parents have
littlecontrolovertheirchildren’suseofthiskindoftechnology,duetoitsrapidspreadthroughout
society. Theproblematicuseofvideogamesinschoolchildrenisalsoariskfactorfordiversehealth
problemsatthecognitive,social,andphysicallevels[6–8]. Agreatdealofresearchhasanalyzedthe
negativeconsequencesoftheproblematicuseofvideogames. Someofthesearephysical,suchas
hormonal changes and various eye problems; some are social, such as the deterioration and loss
of socio-emotional skills; and others are cognitive, such as increasing anxiety, which can lead to
depressioninseriouscases[9,10]. Inthisregard,agreatdealofresearchhasanalyzedthenegative
behavioralconsequencesthatstemfromtheabuseofthiskindoftechnology,revealingareductionin
physicalactivitythatleadstoariseinsedentarylifestylesandobesity[11],allofwhichareassociated
withpoorerhealthingeneral[12]. Anotherofthenegativeconsequencesofvideogamesabuseis
increasedaggressiveness,adirectlinkhavingbeenidentifiedbetweenthesetwofactors[13,14]. Thisis
attributedtotheviolentnatureofmanyvideogames,whoseuseisconsideredariskfactorforviolent
behavior[15,16].
In this sense, schoolchildren are very easily influenced and readily modify their behavior
patterns. Videogamesareseenastheultimateaudiovisualmedium,buttheydisseminateimitable
negativebehaviorsthatadverselyaffectanyonewhohasnotundergoneanappropriatesocialization
process[17,18]. Byplayingvideogameswithahighcontentofaggressiveness,youngpeoplecometo
associateviolencewithpositiveemotionssuchastheenjoymentthegameprovides,whichresultsin
theyoungpersonbecomingdesensitizedtosuchviolentbehavior[19,20]. Forthatreason,asindicated
by Ditrrick et al. [21] and Kimmig et al. [22], constant use of these kind of video games by young
peoplecausesafallintheirlevelsofanxietyandfearinthefaceofviolentsituations,whichinsome
cases causes them to lose their ability to feel empathy for victims and to identify instead with the
aggressors,whichinturnmaybringaboutagreatertoleranceofaggressionandevenengenderviolent
behaviortowardspeers.
Accordingtothisbasis,recentstudiessuchasthosebyBoxeretal.[23]orDeCamp&Ferguson[24]
connect the abuse of screen-based entertainment such as video games and TV with an increase in
victimization,adeteriorationofacademicperformance,andtheproliferationofsymptomsrelated
todepressionthatcanleadtointrafamilialviolence. Inthefaceofallthis,physicalactivitybecomes
afundamentaltoolforcounteractingthespreadofunhealthyhabitsinducedbygreatersedentariness
relatedtotheuseofvideogames. Itcanalsopreventaddictionproblems;perhapseventheuseof
harmfulsubstancessuchasalcohol,tobaccoandotherdrugs[25–27].
Forthesereasons,studyingtheprocessofmotivatingschoolchildrentotakeupphysicalactivity
isconsideredessential,giventhatthisisultimatelywhatwilldeterminewhethertheycontinuewith
sportingactivities,oreitherabandonthemorreplacethemwithsedentaryhabitsrelatedtotheuse
ofdigitalentertainmentandtheconsumptionofharmfulsubstances[28]. Thestudyofmotivation
towardssportisvitalsince,dependingonthetypeofsportpracticed,itcanactbothasariskfactor
andasafactorpreventingtheadoptionofunhealthybehaviors[29,30]. Withregardtothestudyof
motivation,inthecontextofphysicalactivityandsport,theAchievementGoalTheoryconstitutes
oneofthemostpopulartheoreticalframeworks. Thistheoryisbasedonthefundamentalideathat
motivationtowardsthepracticeofphysicalactivitydependsontheobjectivesthatthepersonwantsto
achieve,whichareknownasachievementgoals[31,32].
Onthebasisoftheirworkonmotivationalorientations, authorssuchasLochbaumetal.[33]
indicatetheexistenceoftwodifferentmotivationalclimates: oneisorientedtowardsthetaskandis
characterizedbymoreself-determinedorintrinsicmotivations,wherethepersonpracticesphysical
activityforpleasureorfun,whichpromotesgreateradherencetothepracticeofsport;theotheris
orientedtowardsegoandischaracterizedbyalessself-determinedorextrinsictypeofmotivation,
usually associated with competition and external rewards, and thus promoting rivalry between
peers because of their fear of failure, which is associated more with the abandonment of physical
activity[34,35]. Inthisline,ego-orientedclimatescouldberelatedtonon-adaptivebehaviorssuch
Int.J.Environ.Res.PublicHealth2018,15,1866 3of15
as aggressiveness and the problematic use of video games, while task-oriented climates could be
associatedwithadaptivebehaviorsandhealthyhabits.
Therefore, the present research study has the following objectives: (a) to define and contrast
an explanatory model for the motivational climate, the practice of physical activity, the use of
videogames,andvictimizationamongschoolchildren,and(b)toanalyzetherelationshipsbetween
motivationalclimate,thepracticeofphysicalactivity,theuseofvideogames,andvictimizationby
gender(boys/girls),bythemeansofamultigroupstructuralequationanalysis.
2. MaterialsandMethods
2.1. SubjectsandDesign
Thisdescriptiveandcross-sectionalstudywasconductedonasampleof734schoolchildren,both
boysandgirls(45.2%boysand54.8%girls),agedbetween10and12(M=10.88;SD=0.69),infifthand
sixthprimarygradeinthecityofGranada. Thesamplewaschosenbyconveniencesampling,withthe
requirementbeingthattheparticipantsbeatthethirdstageofprimaryeducation. Thechildreninthe
samplewerefrom11elevendifferentschoolsinthecityofGranada,andalltheschoolsthatagreedto
participatewereaskedtodosoonavoluntarybasis. Itshouldbepointedoutthatinordertoavoid
dataduplication,thenon-repetitionofsubjectswasguaranteedbyindividualizedmonitoringduring
datacollection.
2.2. Measures
Problematicuseofvideogames: theinstrumentCERV(QuestionnaireofExperiencesRelatedto
VideoGames)originallydevelopedbyChamarroetal.[36]wasused. Thisinstrument,whichwas
validated on a sample of 7168 Spanish adolescents by Chamarro et al. [36], is made up of
17negativelyformulateditems,gradedbythemeansofaLikertscalewithfouroptions(1=Never;
2=Sometimes;3=Often;4=Always). Theitemsaretotaleduptodescribetheperson’sbehavior
in relation to the use of video games, classifying them in tertiles to categorize the variables into:
“Noproblems”,“Potentialproblems”and“Seriousproblems”.Thereliabilityoftheoriginalinstrument
byChamarroetal.[36]wasα=0.87,andinthepresentstudyitisα=0.91.
Practiceofphysicalactivity:thequestionnaire“PhysicalActivityQuestionnaireforolderChildren
(PAQ-C)”wasusedinitsvalidatedandadaptedversioninSpanish[37]. Thequestionnaireassesses
moderate to vigorous physical activity practiced during the last seven days, by the means of
10questionsaboutthetypeandfrequencyoftheactivitiescarriedout. Thescoresforeachquestion
ranged from 1 to 5, and calculation of the final score indicated a higher or lower frequency of the
practiceofphysicalactivity. Thisinstrumentachievedaconsistencyofα=0.77,whichwasacceptable
andverysimilartothevalueobtainedbyKowalskietal.[37]intheoriginalstudy(α=0.79).
Motivationalclimateinsport(PMCSQ-2). Thisquestionnairederivesfromtheoriginalversion
by Newton et al. [38], adapted to Spanish by González-Cutre et al. [39]. It is made up of 33 items
gradedbymeansofaLikertscalewithfiveoptionsrangingfrom1=TotallyDisagreeto5=Totally
Agree. Thequestionnaireestablishestwocategories: TaskClimate,withitscategoriesCooperative
Learning,Effort/ImprovementandImportantRole,andEgoClimate,withitscategoriesPunishment
forMistakes,UnequalRecognitionandTeamMemberRivalry. Theinternalconsistency(Cronbach’s
alpha)oftheinstrumentobtainedbyGonzález-Cutreetal.[39]initsSpanishversionwasα=0.90for
Ego Climate (α = 0.77 for punishment for mistakes, α = 0.87 for unequal recognition, α = 0.61 for
teammemberrivalry)andα=0.84forTaskClimate(α=0.65forcooperativelearning,α=0.70for
effort/improvement,α=0.70forimportantrole). Thepresentresearchstudyobtainedα=0.89for
Ego Climate (α = 0.92 for punishment for mistakes, α = 0.91 for unequal recognition, α = 0.68 for
member rivalry) and α = 0.93 for Task Climate (α = 0.83 for cooperative learning, α = 0.84 for
effort/improvement,α=0.86forimportantrole).
Int.J.Environ.Res.PublicHealth2018,15,1866 4of15
SchoolVictimizationScale: ThisquestionnairewascreatedbyMynard&Joseph[40]andadapted
toSpanishbyCavaetal.[41].Itismadeupof20itemsgradedbythemeansofaLikertscale(1=Never;
4=Always), addressingthreetypesofvictimization; PhysicalVictimization, VerbalVictimization,
and Relational Victimization. In the original study, Mynard & Joseph [40] obtained an internal
consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) of α = 0.77. In this study, the coefficient was higher, at α = 0.93
(α = 0.88 for Relational Victimization; α = 0.86 for Physical Victimization; α = 0.84 for Verbal
Victimization).
2.3. Procedure
First,throughtheFacultyofEducationoftheUniversityofGranada,withthecooperationofthe
DepartmentofEducationoftheregionalgovernmentofAndalucia,arequestforcollaborationwas
madetotheparticipatingschoolsinthecityofGranada, whichhadbeenselectedbyconvenience
sampling. Theseschoolswereinformedofthenatureoftheresearchstudy,andcollaborationofthe
studentswasrequested. Secondly,aconsentformwassenttothelegalguardiansoftheteenagers
requestingtheirinformedconsent,sincetheparticipantswereminors.
Theanonymityofthedatacollectedwasguaranteedthroughouttheprocess,itbeingmadeclear
thattheinformationwouldbeusedforscientificpurposesonly. Theresearchteamwasconstantly
availableinordertosolveanydoubts. Thequestionnaireswereallcompletedwithoutanyproblemsor
abnormalitiestoreport.Finally,teachers,schoolcounselors,andresponsiblestaffwerethankedfortheir
collaborationandtoldthattheywouldsoonbesentareportonthedataobtained,withconfidentiality
preservedatalltimes.
Afterdatacollection,atotalof52questionnaireshadtoberejectedbecausetheywerenotcorrectly
completed. ThepresentresearchstudyfollowedtheguidelinessetoutintheDeclarationofHelsinki
(WorldMedicalAssociation,2008)forresearchprojects,aswellasthenationallegislationregulating
clinicaldrugtrials(RoyalDecree223/2004of6February),biomedicalresearch(Law14/2007of3July),
andtheprotectionofpersonaldata(OrganicLaw15/1999of13December).
2.4. DataAnalysis
The statistical software used was IBM SPSS® version 22.0 (IBM Corp, Armonk, NY, USA) for
Windows,fortheanalysisofbasicdescriptors. TheprogramIBMAMOS® 23(IBMCorp,Armonk,
NY, USA) was used for analysis of the relationships between constructs in the structural model.
Oncethetheoreticalmodelhadbeendeveloped,apathanalysiswascarriedout,consideringmatrix
relationshipsderivedfromamultigroupanalysisclassifyingparticipantsbygenderasagrouping
variable. Therefore, two different structural models were established in order to check whether
relationshipsbetweenvariablesvaryaccordingtogender.
Path routes are created using 11 observable variables and three latent variables in order to
determine indicators (Figure 1). These indicators give causal explanations of the latent variables
byobservingrelationshipsbetweentheindicators,consideringthereliabilityofthemeasurements.
Additionally,measurementerrorsareincludedintheobservablevariablesinordertocontrolthem
directly. One-wayarrowsareinfluencelinesbetweenlatentandobservablevariables,andtheyare
interpretedasmultivariateregressioncoefficients. Two-wayarrowsshowtherelationshipbetween
latentvariables,alsorepresentingtheregressioncoefficients.
Motivational climate oriented towards task (TC) and motivational climate oriented towards
ego (EC) act as exogenous variables, and each of them is inferred by three indicators. For task
climate, the indicators are IR (Important Role), E/I (Effort/Improvement), and CL (Cooperative
Learning). For ego climate, they are PM (Punishment for Mistakes), UR (Unequal Recognition),
andMR(TeamMemberRivalry). Theuseofvideogames(VIDEOGAMES)actsasanendogenous
variable, receiving the effect of task climate (TC) and ego climate (EC). The practice of physical
activity (PHYSICAL ACTIVITY) also acts as an endogenous variable, receiving the effect of task
climate(TC),egoclimate(EC),andtheuseofvideogames(VIDEOGAMES).Likewise,victimization
Int.J.Environ.Res.PublicHealth2018,15,1866 5of15
(VICTIMIZATION) acts as an endogenous variable, receiving the effect of the use of video games
(VIDEOGAMES),thepracticeofphysicalactivity(PHYSICALACTIVITY),taskclimate(TC),andego
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 15
climate(EC).

FFiigguurree1 .M1. odMelotdheeol rietsh.eNoroitees1. :TNCo,Ttea1s:k CTliCm, ateT;aCsLk, CCoolipmearateti;v eCLLea, rnCinogo;pEe/rIa,tEivffeo rt/LIemarpnrionvge;m eEn/tI;,
IERf,foImrt/pImorptarnovteRmoelen;t;E ICR,, IEmgpooCrtlainmt aRteo;leM; ERC,, MEgeom Cbleimr Ratiev; aMlrRy;, MPMem,bPeurn Risivhamlreyn; tPfMor, PMunisitsahkmese;nUt fRo,r
UMniesqtaukaelsR; eUcoRg, nUitnioenq;uValI DREeOcogGnAitMioEnS; ,VUIDseEoOf vGidAeMogEaSm, Uess;eP oAf, Pvihdyesoic aglaAmcetsi;v iPtyA;,V PIhCyTsIiMcaIlZ AAcTtIiOviNty,;
VVicICtimTIiMzaItZioAnT;IORNV,, VRiecltaimtioiznaatlioVn;i cRtiVm, iRzaetliaotnio;naOl PVVic,tiOmvizearttioPnh; yOsPicVal, OVvicetritm Pizhaytsiiocna;l VOicVtiVm,izOavtieornt;
VOerVbVal, OVivcetirmt Vizeartbioanl .Victimization.
The model fit was checked in order to verify its compatibility and the empirical information
The model fit was checked in order to verify its compatibility and the empirical information
obtained. Fit reliability was based on the fit indexes established by Marsh [42]. In relation to Chi-
obtained.FitreliabilitywasbasedonthefitindexesestablishedbyMarsh[42].InrelationtoChi-square,
square, non-significant values associated with p denote a good model fit. The Comparative Fit Index
non-significantvaluesassociatedwithpdenoteagoodmodelfit. TheComparativeFitIndex(CFI)
(CFI) will be acceptable if it is higher than 0.90, and excellent if it is higher than 0.95. The Normed Fit
willbeacceptableifitishigherthan0.90,andexcellentifitishigherthan0.95. TheNormedFitIndex
Index (NFI) will be acceptable if it is higher than 0.90. The Incremental Fit Index (IFI) will be
(NFI)willbeacceptableifitishigherthan0.90. TheIncrementalFitIndex(IFI)willbeacceptableif
acceptable if it is higher than 0.90, and excellent if it is higher than 0.95. Finally, the Root Mean Square
itishigherthan0.90,andexcellentifitishigherthan0.95. Finally,theRootMeanSquareErrorof
Error of Approximation (RMSEA) will be excellent if it is lower than 0.05 and acceptable if it is lower
Approximation(RMSEA)willbeexcellentifitislowerthan0.05andacceptableifitislowerthan0.08.
than 0.08.
3. Results
3. Results
Theproposedstructuralequationmodelaccordingtoschoolchildren’sgenderobtainedagoodfit
inallTashsee spsrmopenotseindd sitcreusc.tTuhrealC ehqiu-saqtiuoanr emhoaddeal ascigcnoirfidcianngt tvoa slucheoooflcph(iχld2r=en3’1s9 g,4e7n2d;eDrF o=bt7a2in;ped< a0 .g0o0o1d).
Nfiet viner tahlle laesssse,stshmisenint dienxdiccaens.n oTthbe eCihnit-esrqpuraerteed hiand aa sstaignndiafircdainzte dvawluaey ,owf hpi c(hχ2p =o s3e1s9,a4n72a;d DdFit io= n7a2l;
ppr o<b 0le.0m01b)y. Nitsevseenrtshiteilveistsy, ttohissa minpdleexs iczaen[n4o2t] .bTeh ienrteefroprree,toetdh einr sat asntdanarddairzdeidzefidt iwndayic, ewsthhicaht wpeorseelse sasn
saedndsiittiivoenatol psraombplelmes bizye itws eserensuistievdit.yT thoe scaommpplea rsaiztiev [e42fi]t. iTnhdeerxef(oCrFeI, )ohthaedr astvaanlduaerdofiz0e.d96 f2it, iwndhiicchesw thaast
ewxceerlel elnest.s Tshenesnitoirvme etod sfiatminpdlee xsi(zNeF wI)ehrae duasevda. luTeheo fco0.m95p2a,raantidveth feit inincdreemx e(CntFaIl) fihtaidn dae vxa(lIuFeI )oaf v0a.9lu62e,
owfh0i.c9h62 w, baso tehxcaellsloenbte. iTnhgea ncocermpteadb lfei.t iTnhdeexr o(NotFmI) ehaand saq uvaalrueee orrfo 0r.9o5f2a, papndro txhime iantciorenm(RenMtaSlE fAit )inhdaedx
a(nIFeI)x cae lvleanlutve aoluf e0o.9f602.,0 4b8o.th also being acceptable. The root mean square error of approximation
(RMFSiEgAu)r eha2da annd eTxacbellele1nts hvaolwuet hoef 0e.s0t4im8. atedvaluesoftheparametersinthestructuralmodelfor
schooFlibgouyres .2T ahnedse Tmabulset 1b eshoofwa stuhiet aebstleimmaategdn ivtualduee,sa onfd ththee peafrfeacmtsetmeruss itnb tehsei gstnriuficctaunrtally mdoifdfeerle fnotr
fsrcohmoozle rboo.yNs.o Tihmepsero mpeurset sbteim oaf taio snusistaubclhe amsangengiattuivdee,v aanrida nthcees esfhfeocutlsd mbuesfto uben ds.ignificantly different
from zero. No improper estimations such as negative variances should be found.
Int.J.Environ.Res.PublicHealth2018,15,1866 6of15
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15

FiguFrieg u2r.e S2t.ruSctrtuucrtaulr aelqeuqautaiotino nmmooddeel lffoorr bbooyyss.. NNoottee::T TCC,,T aTsaksCk lCimliamtea;tCeL; ,CCLo, oCpoeroaptievreatLievaer nLienagr;nEi/nIg,; E/I,
Effort/Improvement;IR,ImportantRole;EC,EgoClimate;MR,MemberRivalry;PM,Punishment
Effort/Improvement; IR, Important Role; EC, Ego Climate; MR, Member Rivalry; PM, Punishment for
forMistakes;UR,UnequalRecognition;VIDEOGAMES,Useofvideogames;PA,PhysicalActivity;
Mistakes; UR, Unequal Recognition; VIDEO GAMES, Use of video games; PA, Physical Activity;
VICTIMIZATION,Victimization;RV,RelationalVictimization;OPV,OvertPhysicalVictimization;OVV,
VICTIMIZATION, Victimization; RV, Relational Victimization; OPV, Overt Physical Victimization;
OvertVerbalVictimization.
OVV, Overt Verbal Victimization.
Table1.Weightsandstandardizedregressionweightsforboys.
Table 1. Weights and standardized regression weights for boys.
R.W. S.R.W.
RelationshipsbetweenVariables R.W. S.R.W
Relationships between Variables Estimates E.E. C.R. P Estimates
Estimates E.E. C.R. P Estimates
VIDEOGAMES ← TC −0.561 0.430 −1.304 0.192 −0.056
VIDEO GAMES ← TC −0.561 0.430 −1.304 0.192 −0.056
VIDEOGAMES ← EC 2.778 0.523 5.313 *** 0.250
VIDEO GPAAMES ←← ECTC 0.3012.778 0.044 0.5236 .880 5.313 *** *** 0.294 0.250
PAP A ←← TCEC −0.0309.301 0.053 0.04−4 0.7406.8800 .459 *** −0.034 0.294
PA ← VIDEOGAMES −0.009 0.004 −2.208 * −0.085
PA ← EC −0.039 0.053 −0.740 0.459 −0.034
VICTIMIZATION ← TC 0.304 0.067 4.522 *** 0.208
VICTPIAM IZATION ←← VIDEO GECAMES 0.64−40.009 0.083 0.0047 .760−2.208 *** * 0.396 −0.085
VICTVIIMCTIIZMAIZTAITOIONN ←← TCPA 0.0090.304 0.058 0.0670 .147 4.5220 .883 *** 0.006 0.208
VICTIMIZATION ← VIDEOGAMES 0.014 0.006 2.330 * 0.094
VICTIMIZAIRTION ←← ECTC 1.0000.644 - 0.083 - 7.760 - *** 0.826 0.396
VICTIMIZEA/ITION ←← PATC 1.1390.009 0.043 0.0582 6.3250.147 *** 0.883 0.919 0.006
VICTIMIZCALTION ←← VIDEO GTCAMES 0.9630.014 0.041 0.0062 3.6622.330 *** * 0.806 0.094
PM ← EC 1.000 - - - 0.809
IRU R ←← TCEC 0.4671.000 0.031 - 15.203 - *** - 0.774 0.826
E/IM R ←← TCEC 0.7261.139 0.062 0.0431 1.73026.325 *** *** 0.516 0.919
CLO VV ←← VICTITMCIZ ATION 1.0000.963 - 0.041 - 23.662 - *** 0.938 0.806
OPV ← VICTIMIZATION 0.679 0.027 25.495 *** 0.775
PMR V ←← VICTIEMCIZ ATION 0.8111.000 0.026 - 30.927 - *** - 0.878 0.809
URE C ←↔ ECTC −0.1800.467 0.026 0.03−1 6.81515.203 *** *** −0.339 0.774
NMoteR1 :TC,TaskClim←ate ;CL,CooperatiEvCeL earning;E/I,Effor0t/.I7m2p6r ovemen0t;.I0R6,2Im por1ta1n.t7R3o0l e;EC,E**g*o Climate;0.516
MORV,VM emberRivalr←y;P M,PVunIiCshTmIMenItZfoArTMIiOstaNk es;UR,U1n.e0q0u0a lRecogniti-o n;VIDEO-G AMES,Us-e ofvideo 0.938
games;PA,PhysicalActivity;VICTIMIZATION,Victimization;RV,RelationalVictimization;OPV,OvertPhysical
VOicPtiVm ization;OVV,O←v ertVerVbIaClVTicIMtimIiZzaAtioTnI.ONNot e:R.W.,R0e.g6r7e9ss ionWeig0h.0ts2;7S .R.W.2,5St.a4n9d5a rdized**R*e gression 0.775
WReiVgh ts;E.E.,ErrorE←st imatioVnI;CCT.RI.M,CIrZitiAcaTlIROatNio ;***Statis0ti.c8a1ll1y significa0n.0t2re6l ation3sh0i.p92b7e tween*v*a*r iablesat 0.878
alevelof0.005;*Statisticallysignificantrelationshipbetweenvariablesatalevelof0.05.
EC ↔ TC −0.180 0.026 −6.815 *** −0.339
Note 1: TC, Task Climate; CL, Cooperative Learning; E/I, Effort/Improvement; IR, Important Role;
EC, Ego Climate; MR, Member Rivalry; PM, Punishment for Mistakes; UR, Unequal Recognition;
VIDEO GAMES, Use of video games; PA, Physical Activity; VICTIMIZATION, Victimization; RV,
Relational Victimization; OPV, Overt Physical Victimization; OVV, Overt Verbal Victimization. Note:
R.W., Regression Weights; S.R.W., Standardized Regression Weights; E.E., Error Estimation; C.R.,
Critical Ratio; *** Statistically significant relationship between variables at a level of 0.005;
* Statistically significant relationship between variables at a level of 0.05.
Int.J.Environ.Res.PublicHealth2018,15,1866 7of15
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15
Statistically significant relations were found at the p < 0.005 level in all associations between
motivatiSotantaislticclaimllya tseigannifdicaintst dreilmateionnssi ownesr,ea floluonfdt haet steheb epi n< g0.p00o5s ilteivveel ainn dalld airsescotc.iaTtiohnes rbeelatwtioeenns hip
betwmeoetinvaTtaiosnkaCl clilmimaattee aanndd Eitgs odCimliemnsaitoensw, aasll soigf nthifiescea nbteiantgt hpeospiti<ve0 .a0n0d5 dleivreeclt,. bTehine grenlaetgioantisvheipa nd
indibreetcwte(ren= T−a0s.k3 3C9l)i.mLaitkee awnids eE,gstoa tCislitmicaatlley wsiagsn sifiigcnainfitcarnelta atito tnhse wp e<r e0.f0o0u5n ldevaetl,t hbeeipng< n0.e0g0a5tilveev ealnidn all
assoincidaitrieocnt s(rb =e −tw0.3e3e9n).V Liicktiemwiizsea,t isotantiastnicdailltys sinigdniicfaictaonrst ,raellaltoiofnths ewseerbe efionugndp oast itthive ep a<n 0d.0d05ir elecvt.el in all
asAsoncaialytizoinnsg bethtweeiennfl Vuiecnticmeizoaftitohne ainndd iitcsa itnodrsicaintortsh, eallla otfe tnhtesvea brieainbgle ps,osititicvoeu alnddb deirseecet.n that all of
them haAdnsatlaytziisntgic tahlely insfilgunenificcea onf tthdei fifnedriecnactoerss aint tthhee lpat<en0t .v0a0r5ialbelvese,l i,t acloluoldf tbhee sseeenb ethinagt apllo osfi ttihveema nd
had statistically significant differences at the p < 0.005 level, all of these being positive and direct.
direct. InTaskClimate,theindicatorwiththehighestcorrelationcoefficientwasEffort/Improvement
In Task Climate, the indicator with the highest correlation coefficient was Effort/Improvement
(r=0.919),followedbyImportantRole(r=0.826)andCooperativeLearning(r=0.806).InEgoClimate,
(r = 0.919), followed by Important Role (r = 0.826) and Cooperative Learning (r = 0.806). In Ego
the strongest association was found in Punishment for Mistakes (r = 0.809), followed by Unequal
Climate, the strongest association was found in Punishment for Mistakes (r = 0.809), followed by
Recognition(r=0.774)andMemberRivalry(r=0.516).WithregardtoVictimization,theindicatorwith
Unequal Recognition (r = 0.774) and Member Rivalry (r = 0.516). With regard to Victimization, the
thehighestcorrelationwasOvertVerbalVictimization(r=0.938),followedbyRelationalVictimization
indicator with the highest correlation was Overt Verbal Victimization (r = 0.938), followed by
(r=0.878),andOvertPhysicalVictimization(r=0.775).
Relational Victimization (r = 0.878), and Overt Physical Victimization (r = 0.775).
LikLeiwkeiswei,se,s igsniginfiicfiacnatnt asassosocciaiattiioonnss ((pp << 00..000055) ) wweerer efofounudn dbebtwetewenee nTaTska skCliCmlaimte ataenda nd
VictVimictiizmatizioanti—onb—ebinegingp opsoistiivtievea nandd ddirireecctt ((rr == 00..220088))——aanndd bbetewtweeene nTaTsaks kClCimliamtea taenda nPdhyPshicyasl ical
ActAivcittiyv—itya—lsaolsboe ibnegingp opsoitsiivtievea nanddd dirierecctt (r(r == 00..229944)).. SSttaatitsitsitciaclalyll ysisginginfiicfiacnat ndtifdfeifrfeenrceensc weserwe earlesoa lso
founfodunadt aatl eav leelvoelf opf <p 0<. 000.0505b ebtewtweeeennE Eggoo CClliimmaattee aanndd VViiccttimimizizaatitoino,n r,erveevaelianlgin ag dairdeicrte acstsaoscsiaotcioiant i on
(r=(0r .=3 90.63)9,6w),i wthitahn aanv aevreargaegec ocorrrerelalatitoionn ssttrreennggtthh.. WWiitthh rreeggaarrdd toto ththe ererlealtaiotinosnhsiph ibpetbwetewene eEngoE CgolimCalitme ate
andatnhde tuhsee uosef vofi dveidoegoa gmamese,st,h tehed dififfefreerenncceessw weerree aallssoo ssttaattiissttiiccaallllyy ssigignnifiificacnatn (tr( =r =0.205.205).0 ).
The use of video games and the practice of physical activity revealed a negative and indirect
The use of video games and the practice of physical activity revealed a negative and indirect
relationship (r = 0.085; p = −0.027), the correlation being week. However, the relationship between the
relationship(r=0.085;p=−0.027),thecorrelationbeingweek. However,therelationshipbetween
use of video games and victimization was positive and direct, but correlation was also week (r = 0.094;
the use of video games and victimization was positive and direct, but correlation was also week
p = 0.020). Task Climate and the use of video games did not reveal any statistically significant
(r=0.094;p=0.020).TaskClimateandtheuseofvideogamesdidnotrevealanystatisticallysignificant
associations in school boys. The same occurred in the relationship between Ego Climate and the
associationsinschoolboys.ThesameoccurredintherelationshipbetweenEgoClimateandthepractice
practice of physical activity, and the relationship between victimization and the practice of physical
ofphysicalactivity,andtherelationshipbetweenvictimizationandthepracticeofphysicalactivity.
activity.
Figure 3 and Table 2 show estimated values of the parameters in the structural model for
Figure 3 and Table 2 show estimated values of the parameters in the structural model for school
schogoirllsg.i Trlhse.sTeh mesuestm bue sotf bae soufitaabsluei mtaabglenimtuadgen aintudd tehea nefdfetchtes mefufesct tbsem siugsntifbiceasnitglny idfiicfafenrtelnyt dfrioffmer eznertof.r om
zeroN.oN iomipmroppreorp eesrtiemstaitmioantsi osuncshs uasc hneagsantievge avtaivrieanvcaersi asnhcoeuslds hboeu foldunbde. found.

FiguFrigeu3r.eS 3t.r Sutcrtuucrtaulraelq euqautaiotinonm mododeellf oforrg girirllss.. NNoottee:: TTCC,, TTaasskk CClilmimaatet;e C;CL,L C,Cooopoepreatriavteiv LeeLarenairnngi;n Eg/;I,E /I,
EffoErftf/oIrmt/Ipmrporvoevmemenent;t;I RIR,,I Immppoorrttaanntt RRoolele; ;EECC, E,gEog ColCimliamtea; tMe;RM, MRe,mMbeemr RbievralRryiv; aPlMry, ;PPuMnis,hPmuennist hfomr ent
forMMiissttaakkeess; ;UURR, ,UUnneeqquuala lRReceocgongintiiotino; nV;IVDIEDOE OGAGMAEMS,E US,sUe soef ovfidveiod egoamgaems; ePsA;P, APh,yPshicyasli cAacltAivcittyiv; ity;
VICTIMIZATION, Victimization; RV, Relational Victimization; OPV, Overt Physical Victimization;
VICTIMIZATION,Victimization;RV,RelationalVictimization;OPV,OvertPhysicalVictimization;OVV,
OVV, Overt Verbal Victimization.
OvertVerbalVictimization.
Int.J.Environ.Res.PublicHealth2018,15,1866 8of15
Table2.Weightsandstandardizedregressionweightsforgirls.
R.W. S.R.W.
RelationshipsbetweenVariables
Estimates E.E. C.R. P Estimates
VIDEOGAMES ← TC −1.406 0.445 −3.159 *** −0.133
VIDEOGAMES ← EC −0.546 0.377 −1.448 0.148 −0.062
PA ← TC 0.480 0.052 9.283 *** 0.393
PA ← EC 0.150 0.042 3.585 *** 0.146
PA ← VIDEOGAMES −0.009 0.004 −2.422 * −0.081
VICTIMIZATION ← TC 0.000 0.078 0.004 0.997 0.000
VICTIMIZATION ← EC 0.379 0.063 6.063 *** 0.265
VICTIMIZATION ← PA 0.005 0.053 0.103 0.918 0.004
VICTIMIZATION ← VIDEOGAMES 0.028 0.006 4.939 *** 0.174
IR ← TC 1.000 - - - 0.731
E/I ← TC 1.211 0.060 20.110 *** 0.871
CL ← TC 1.045 0.056 18.806 *** 0.728
PM ← EC 1.000 - - - 0.786
UR ← EC 0.497 0.026 18.942 *** 0.839
MR ← EC 0.932 0.057 16.428 *** 0.627
OVV ← VICTIMIZATION 1.000 - - - 0.968
OPV ← VICTIMIZATION 0.530 0.023 23.296 *** 0.722
RV ← VICTIMIZATION 0.790 0.030 26.585 *** 0.801
EC ↔ TC −0.173 0.023 −7.581 *** −0.360
Note:TC,TaskClimate;CL,CooperativeLearning;E/I,Effort/Improvement;IR,ImportantRole;EC,EgoClimate;
MR,MemberRivalry;PM,PunishmentforMistakes;UR,UnequalRecognition;VIDEOGAMES,Useofvideo
games;PA,PhysicalActivity;VICTIMIZATION,Victimization;RV,RelationalVictimization;OPV,OvertPhysical
Victimization;OVV,OvertVerbalVictimization;R.W.,RegressionWeights;S.R.W.,StandardizedRegressionWeights;
E.E.,ErrorEstimation;C.R.,CriticalRatio;***Statisticallysignificantrelationshipbetweenvariablesatalevelof
0.005;*Statisticallysignificantrelationshipbetweenvariablesatalevelof0.05.
Statisticallysignificantrelationshipswerefoundatthep<0.005levelinallassociationsbetween
motivational climate and its dimensions, all of these being positive and direct. The relationship
between Task Climate and Ego Climate was significant at the p < 0.005 level, being negative and
indirect(r=−0.360). Likewise,statisticallysignificantrelationshipsatthep<0.005levelwerefound
betweenvictimizationanditsindicators,allofthesebeingpositiveanddirect.
Analyzingtheinfluenceoftheindicatorsoneachofthelatentvariables,statisticallysignificant
differences were found at the p < 0.005 level in all of them, all relationships being positive and
direct. InTaskClimate,theindicatorwiththehighestcorrelationcoefficientwasEffort/Improvement
(r=0.871),followedbyImportantRole(r=0.731)andCooperativeLearning(r=0.728).InEgoClimate,
thestrongestassociationwasfoundinUnequalRecognition(r=0.839),followedbyPunishmentfor
Mistakes (r = 0.786), and Member Rivalry (r = 0.627). With regard to Victimization, the indicator
showingthestrongestcorrelationwasOvertVerbalVictimization(r=0.968),followedbyRelational
Victimization(r=0.801),andOvertPhysicalVictimization(r=0.722).
In the same way, significant associations (p < 0.005) were found between Ego Climate and
Victimization -being positive and direct (r = 0.265)- and between Ego Climate and Physical
Activity—being also positive and direct (r = 0.146), both having a weak correlation. Statistically
significantdifferenceswerealsofoundatthep<0.005levelbetweenTaskClimateandthepractice
ofphysicalactivity,revealingadirectassociation(r=0.393). Withregardtotherelationshipbetween
TaskClimateandtheuseofvideogames,anegativeandindirectassociationwasfound(r=−0.133),
alsohavingaweakcorrelation.
The use of video games and the practice of physical activity revealed a negative and indirect
relationship(r=−0.081;p=0.015),havingaweakcorrelation. However,intheassociationbetween
theuseofvideogamesandVictimization,therelationshipwaspositiveanddirect,alsohavingaweak
correlation,althoughhigherthanthepreviousone(r=0.174;p=0.015).
EgoClimateandtheuseofvideogamesdidnotrevealanystatisticallysignificantassociations
in school girls. The same occurred in the relationship between Task Climate and victimization,
andbetweenthepracticeofphysicalactivityandVictimization.
Int.J.Environ.Res.PublicHealth2018,15,1866 9of15
4. Discussion
Thisresearchstudyconductedamultigroupstructuralequationanalysisaimedatcontrasting
associationsbetweenthemotivationalclimateinsport,victimization,theproblematicuseofvideo
games, and the practice of physical activity. The path model developed had excellent fit indices
and created a valid explanatory model enabling the understanding of the relationships that exist
between motivational factors, victimization, the use of video games, and the practice of physical
activitybyschoolchildren,bothboysandgirls,inthesamewayasdoothernationalandinternational
studies[43–46].
Analyzingmotivationalclimate,theproposedstructuralmodelrevealsasignificantandinverse
relationshipbetweentaskclimateandegoclimateforbothboysandgirls,whichisstrongerandmore
differentiatedforgirls. Itseemsevidentthatsubjectsstronglyorientedtowardsthetaskshowlittle
motivationtowardsego, andviceversa[47–49]. Thisisbecauseindividualsadoptapredominant
orientation, either towards the task, which rewards effort and personal development, or towards
ego,whichfostersteammemberrivalryandthedisplayofpersonalskill[50]. Withregardtogirls,
thisinverserelationshipisstrongerbecauseboysaremoreego-orientedandlesstask-orientedthan
girls,thisbeingexplainedbythefactthatgirlstendtoworktowardsintrinsicgoalswhileboysfocus
ontheachievementofextrinsicgoals[51,52].
With regard to the categories that make up task climate dimensions, it can be seen that the
influence of the indicators is proportional, with effort/improvement being the indicator with the
strongestcorrelation, inbothboysandgirls, followedbyimportantroleandcooperativelearning,
the three indicators showing a stronger correlation in boys. In the case of ego climate, the most
influentialindicatorforboysispunishmentformistakes,whereasforgirlsitisunequalrecognition.
These data are in line with the results of studies by Bandeira et al. [47] and Xiang et al. [53],
whichindicatethateffortandimprovementconstitutethefundamentalfactorcharacterizingthetypeof
motivationthatismoreself-determinedorintrinsic,itsfocusbeingonimprovinganddevelopingskills
ratherthanthinkingaboutexternalrewards.Sinceboysaremoreego-orientedthangirls,theyaremore
concernedaboutpunishment,whereasgirlsareinfluencedtoagreaterextentbyunequalrecognition,
worryinglessthanboysaboutpunishmentandfocusingmoreonintrinsicgoals[49,51].
Asforvictimization,theinfluenceoftheindicatorsfollowsthesamepatterninbothboysand
girls. For girls, however, correlation is slightly stronger in overt verbal victimization, while overt
physicalvictimizationandrelationalvictimizationhaveastrongercorrelationforboys. Theresults
indicatethatgirlssuffermoreverbalvictimizationthanboys,whileboyssuffermorephysicaland
relationalvictimizationthangirls[54,55]. InlinewiththefindingsofDevriesetal.[56],itisclearthat
boysaremorelikelytovictimizeorbevictimizedphysically,whereasingirlstheretendstobeagreater
biastowardsverbalaggressionandvictimization. Thereasonforthismaybethatboysarelessfearful
ofphysicalaggression,asaresultofsocialandculturalfactors[57].
In terms of the relationship between motivational climate and victimization, a positive and
directrelationshipwasfoundbetweentaskclimateandvictimizationamongboys, therebeingno
suchrelationshipingirls. Thiscanbeexplainedbythefactthattaskclimatepromotescooperation,
wherebyindividualsareobligedtoworkinacollectivemanner,interactingwithothers,whichcan
easily give rise to incidents of bullying when the coach is absent or in unattended areas such as
in hallways and changing rooms [58,59]. In terms of ego climate and victimization, a positive
and direct relationship is found between them, for both boys and girls, but it is stronger for boys.
Thereasonforthisisthatboysaremorestronglyorientedtowardstasksthanaregirls. Therefore,
when schoolchildren engage in physical activity, whether collectively or not, if that an activity is
centeredaroundcompetition,theymayfindthemselvesfacedwithdefeatordisappointingresultsthat
causethemtoexperiencefrustration,whichmayleadtoviolentsituationswithinthepeergroup[59,60].
A positive and direct relationship was found between the two motivational climates and the
practiceofphysicalactivity,thisbeingstrongerinthecaseoftaskclimate. Analyzedresearchindicates
thattheintentiontobephysicallyactiveisdirectlyrelatedtointrinsicmotivation,whichisconnectedto
Int.J.Environ.Res.PublicHealth2018,15,1866 10of15
themoreself-determinedtypeofmotivation,focusingonenjoymentandpersonaldevelopment[61,62].
Thetwotypesofmotivationalclimatearenotmutuallyexclusive;theyarecomplementaryandthus
positivelyanddirectlyrelatedtothepracticeofsports. However,taskclimateismorebeneficialin
termsofcommitmenttoparticipatinginsports,egoclimatebeingmoreorientedtowardsachieving
resultsandshowingoffone’sskills[63,64].
Analyzingtheconnectionbetweentaskclimateandtheproblematicuseofvideogames,anegative
andindirectrelationshipwasfoundforgirls,showinganaveragestrengthofcorrelation,whereasthis
association is not significant for boys. In the case of ego climate and the problematic use of video
games, they are directly and positively related for boys, but there is no such association for girls.
StudiescarriedoutbyGentileetal.[12]andChacónetal.[65]showsimilarrelationships,attributing
themtotheneedforrivalryandtheexternalreinforcement,providedbymotivationalclimatesoriented
towardsego,thisapplyinginvirtuallythesamewaytobothsportingcompetitionsandvideogames.
Incontrast, taskclimatecanactasaprotectivefactoragainstthepathologicaluseofvideogames,
sinceitpromotesintrinsicmotivationtoengageinphysicalactivity,increasingadherencetoitand
reducingsedentaryuseofdigitalentertainment[66,67].
The relationship between the problematic use of video games and the practice of physical
activity is negative and indirect for boys and girls alike, its correlation being slightly stronger for
boys. CoincidingwiththeresultsofresearchbyStubblefieldetal.[68]andKrossbakkenetal.[69],
thesefindingsareexplainablebythefactthatschoolchildren’sfreetimeisusuallydevotedmainlyto
physicalactivity;however,sinceacoupleofdecadesago,thisfreetimehasbeendevotedincreasingly
todigitalmediasuchasvideogames.Therefore,theseresultsindicatetheneedtoencourageadherence
tothepracticeofphysicalactivity,tothedetrimentofsedentarinessrelatedtodigitalentertainment,
inordertoimprovechildren’shealthingeneral[70–73]. Additionally,boystendtousevideogame
consolesandvideogamesmorethangirls,sotheircorrelationisstronger[74].
Apositiveanddirectrelationshipwasfoundbetweentheproblematicuseofvideogamesand
victimizationinschoolchildren,thecorrelationbeingstrongeringirlsthanboys. Thesedataagree
withotherresearchstudiesconsulted[75–77]infindingthatyoungpeoplewhoplayvideogameswith
violentcontenttendtosuffermorevictimizationthanthosewhodonotexhibitproblematicuseof
videogames[78–80]. Sincemostcurrentvideogamesdohaveviolentcontent,constantexposureto
themcanaffectchildren’scognitiveprocesses,leadingtotheirperceivingviolentbehaviorasnormal
andlosingtheirsensitivityandempathyinthefaceofviolentacts[23]. Fromthisitcanbededuced
thattheproblematicuseofvideogamesbecomesariskfactorintermsofschoolharassmentorbullying
andlevelsofsedentariness,negativelyinfluencingbothfactors[81,82].
Thepresentresearchstudyhassomelimitations, oneofthembeingitscross-sectionalnature,
whichprecludestheestablishmentofcauseandeffectrelationships. Forsuchreasons, andinline
withthedataderivedfromthestudy,thereisaneedtoimplementinterventionprogramsaimedat
promotingadherencetothepracticeofphysicalactivityinsteadofsedentarydigitalentertainment,
inanattempttoreplacetimedevotedtovideogameswithhealthybehaviorrelatedtothepractice
ofphysicalactivityandsport. Itwouldalsobeinterestingtopromotemotivationalclimatesoriented
towardstaskintheschoolcontext,inviewoftheinverserelationshipthathasbeenfoundwiththe
problematicuseofvideogames.
5. Conclusions
The findings reveal a positive relationship between task climate and the practice of physical
activityforbothgenders,butitisstrongerforgirls. Theassociationbetweentaskclimateandtheuse
ofvideogamesisnegativeandindirectforgirls,whereasforboysitisnotsignificant. Additionally,
taskclimateandvictimizationispositivelyrelatedforboys. Furthermore,egoclimateandtheuse
ofvideogamesarepositivelyrelatedforboys,butnoassociationisfoundforgirls. Therelationship
betweentheuseofvideogamesandthepracticeofphysicalactivityisnegativeforbothboysand
girls, being stronger in the case of boys. The same tendency is followed between ego climate and