Aircraft Flight: A description of the physical principles of aircraft flight

385 Pages·2010·8.3 MB·English

by  R. H.

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A01_BARNARD0989_04_SE_FM1.QXD 14/9/09 15:23 Page i
Aircraft Flight
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A01_BARNARD0989_04_SE_FM1.QXD 14/9/09 15:23 Page iii
Aircraft Flight
A description of the physical principles of
aircraft flight
FOURTH EDITION
R. H. BARNARD PhD, CEng, FRAeS
Formerly Principal Lecturer in Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering
D. R. PHILPOTT PhD, CEng, MRAeS, AMIAA
Reader Emeritus in Aerospace Engineering,
Senior Transonic Aerodynamics Engineer IHS ESDU
A01_BARNARD0989_04_SE_FM1.QXD 12/7/09 11:21 AM Page iv
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England
and Associated Companies throughout the world
Visit us on the World Wide Web at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk
First published 1989 Longman Group UK limited
Second edition 1995 Longman Group Limited
Third edition 2004 Pearson Education Limited
Fourth edition published 2010
© Pearson Education Limited 1989, 2010
The rights of R. H. Barnard and D. R. Philpott to be identified as authors of this work have
been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting
restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron
House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark
in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such
trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement
of this book by such owners.
ISBN: 978-0-273-73098-9
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
13 12 11 10 09
Typeset in 10/12pt Sabon by 35
Printed and bound in China (EPC/01)
The publisher’s policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests.
A01_BARNARD0989_04_SE_FM1.QXD 14/9/09 15:23 Page v
Contents
Acknowledgements vi
Introduction vii
Chapter 1 Lift 1
Chapter 2 Wings 37
Chapter 3 The boundary layer and its control 65
Chapter 4 Drag 90
Chapter 5 High speed flow 117
Chapter 6 Thrust and propulsion 137
Chapter 7 Performance 187
Chapter 8 Supersonic aircraft 215
Chapter 9 Transonic aircraft 243
Chapter 10 Aircraft control 267
Chapter 11 Static stability 295
Chapter 12 Dynamic stability 318
Chapter 13 Take-off and landing 337
Chapter 14 Structural influences 350
Appendix Some Aerofoil Characteristics 361
References 367
Index 369
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the following for their encouragement
and helpful comments: W. A. Fox, and R. J. Morton, Hatfield Polytechnic,
Dr F. Ogilvie British Aerospace, Prof. J. Stollery, Cranfield Institute of
Technology, and R. Chambers, British Airways.
We are grateful to the following to reproduce copyright material:
Figures
Figure 6.19 from The Jet Engine, 4th edn, Rolls-Royce plc (1986) Figure 3.7,
p. 23; Figures 6.20, 10.21 with permission from Rolls-Royce plc.
Photographs
(Key: b-bottom; c-centre; l-left; r-right; t-top)
The Boeing Company 192, 252; British Aerospace 3, 40, 246b, 270; British
Aerospace (Bristol) 24, 61, 159, 219; N. Cogger 207, 216, 224; Alistair
Copeland 317; Gossamer Ventures/Paul MacCready 280; Airbus UK 359;
Beech Aircraft Corp. 103; Bell Helicopter Textron Inc. 34; Jacques Driviere,
l’Ecole Nationale Superieure, d’Arts et Metiers, ENSAM, Paris 14, 22, 41,
93; General Electric Co. 172; Key Publishing Limited/Duncan Cubitt 183;
Lockheed California C o. 46, 177, 235; NASA 178, 234, 237, 242; Northrop
Grumman 113, 217, 265; QinetiQ 89; Reaction Engines Ltd/Alan Bond
239; Rolls Royce plc 27, 157; Royal Aeronautical Society 160; Westland
Helicopters Ltd 33; Keith Wilson/Europa Aircraft Ltd 39; R. Wilkinson 349.
In some instances we have been unable to trace the owners of copyright mater-
ial, and we would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so.
A01_BARNARD0989_04_SE_FM1.QXD 14/9/09 15:23 Page vii
Introduction
For this fourth edition we have updated the text and a number of illustrations.
During the twenty years that have elapsed since the first edition was published,
there have been few significant outward changes in the shape of aircraft; most
developments have been in the areas of electronics, systems and structural
materials. Two relatively new classes of aircraft have however emerged: the
low orbit space-plane, and unmanned air vehicles. These vehicles are dealt
with in this edition. As in the previous edition, we have included an appendix
giving the characteristics of three different aerofoils. This information should
be particularly useful for project work.
This book is intended to provide a description on the principles of aircraft
flight in physical rather than mathematical terms. There are several excellent
mathematical texts on the subject, but although many people may be capable
of reading them, in practice few will do so unless forced by dire circumstances
such as an impending examination and inadequate lecture notes. As a con-
sequence, a great deal of aeronautical knowledge appears to be handed on by
a kind of oral tradition. As with the great ballads of old, this can lead to some
highly dubious versions.
We would of course encourage our readers to progress to the more difficult
texts, and we have given suitable references. However it is always easier to read
mathematical explana tions if you already have a proper understanding of the
physics of the problem.
We have included in our account, some of the more important practical
aspects of aircraft flight, and we have given examples of recent innovations,
descriptions of which are generally only to be found scattered around in
assorted technical journals.
Although we do not include any mathematical analysis, we have slipped
in one or two simple formulae as a means of defining important terms such as
‘lift coefficient’ and ‘Reynolds number’, which are an essential part of the
vocabulary of aeronautics.
In a book of affordable size, we cannot hope to cover every aspect of aircraft
flight in detail. We have therefore concentrated on items that we consider to be
either important, or interesting. We have also restricted the book to cover the
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viii INTRODUCTION
aerodynamics and mechanics of flight, with only the briefest consideration of
other important aspects such as structural influences.
We see the book primarily as a general introduction for anyone interested
in aircraft or contemplating a career in aeronautics. Students of aeronautical
engineering should find it helpful as introductory and background reading.
It should also be useful to anyone who has an occupational concern with aero-
nautics, either as flight crew, ground staff, or as an employee in the aerospace
industry. Finally, we hope that it will be read by anybody who, like us, just
finds the whole business of aviation fascinating.
It is assumed that the reader has some school background in elementary
physical science, and is at least vaguely familiar with concepts such as energy,
and momentum.
M01_BARNARD0989_04_SE_C01.QXD 14/9/09 15:18 Page 1
CHAPTER 1
Lift
Many years ago, someone thought up a convincing, but incorrect explanation
of how a wing generates lift; the force required to support the weight of an
aircraft in flight. This explanation is, unfortunately, so widely known and
believed, that it is probably true to say that most of the world’s aircraft are
being flown by people who have a false idea about what is keeping them in the
air. Correct descriptions do exist, of course, but they are mostly contained in
daunting mathematical texts. Our objective is to give an accurate description
of the principles of flight in simple physical terms. In the process of doing so,
we will need to demolish some well-established myths.
Lift
To sustain an aircraft in the air in steady and level flight, it is necessary to gen-
erate an upward liftforce which must exactly balance the weight, as illustrated
in Fig. 1.1. Aircraft do not always fly steady and level, however, and it is often

Fig. 1.1 Forces on an aircraft in steady level flight
The lift exactly balances the weight, and the engine thrust is equal to the drag