Advances in Clean Energy: Production and Application

275 Pages·2020·17.312 MB·English

by  Anand Ramanathan, Babu Dharmalingam, Vinoth Thangarasu

Advances in Clean Energy

Advances in Clean Energy
Production and Application
Anand Ramanathan, Babu Dharmalingam,
and Vinoth Thangarasu
First edition published 2021
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ISBN: 978-0-367-51912-4 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-05568-6 (ebk)
Typeset in Times
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
Contents
Preface....................................................................................................................xiii
Authors .....................................................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 Global Energy Sources and Present Energy Scenario .........................1
1.1 Introduction .................................................................................1
1.2 Brief History of Fossil Fuels .......................................................2
1.2.1 Coal .................................................................................2
1.2.2 Petrol and Diesel .............................................................3
1.2.3 Natural Gas......................................................................4
1.2.4 Other Fossil Fuels ...........................................................4
1.3 Renewable Energy Sources – Biomass .......................................5
1.3.1 What Is Biomass? ............................................................5
1.3.2 Biomass Feedstocks ........................................................5
1.3.2.1 Edible Crops .....................................................6
1.3.2.2 Non-Edible Crops.............................................6
1.3.2.3 Lignocellulosic Biomass Waste........................9
1.4 Global Energy Needs – Present and Future ...............................10
1.5 Indian Energy Needs – Present and Future ...............................11
1.6 Climate Change .........................................................................12
1.7 Conclusion .................................................................................13
References ..........................................................................................13
Chapter 2 Biodiesel Production Techniques – The State of the Art ...................19
2.1 Introduction ...............................................................................19
2.2 Catalyst in Transesterification ...................................................20
2.2.1 Homogeneous Catalyst..................................................21
2.2.1.1 Acid Catalyst ..................................................21
2.2.1.2 Base Catalyst ..................................................21
2.2.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst .................................................24
2.2.2.1 Acid Catalyst ..................................................24
2.2.2.2 Base Catalyst ..................................................26
2.2.2.3 Enzymatic Catalyst.........................................31
2.3 Co-Solvent Transesterification ..................................................31
2.4 Microwave-Assisted Transesterification ....................................32
2.5 Ultrasound-Assisted Transesterification ....................................33
2.6 Non-Catalytic Supercritical Methanol Transesterification ........34
2.7 Purification of Biodiesel ............................................................35
2.8 Conclusion .................................................................................35
References ..........................................................................................36
v
vi Contents
Chapter 3 Physicochemical and Thermal Properties of Biodiesel......................47
3.1 Introduction ...............................................................................47
3.2 Acid Value .................................................................................48
3.3 Saponification Value ..................................................................49
3.4 Iodine Value ...............................................................................50
3.5 Cetane Number ..........................................................................51
3.6 Cloud and Pour Point ................................................................52
3.7 Cold Filter Plugging Point .........................................................53
3.8 Kinematic Viscosity ...................................................................53
3.9 Density ......................................................................................54
3.10 Carbon Residue .........................................................................55
3.11 Copper Strip Corrosion .............................................................56
3.12 Flash and Fire Point ...................................................................56
3.13 Sulfur Content ...........................................................................57
3.14 Metal Content ............................................................................57
3.15 Methanol Content ......................................................................58
3.16 Phosphorus Content ..................................................................59
3.17 Free Glycerol and Total Glycerin ..............................................59
3.18 Mono-, Di-, and Triglycerides ...................................................60
3.19 Ester Content .............................................................................60
3.20 Lubricity ....................................................................................61
3.21 Oxidation Stability ....................................................................62
3.22 Thermal Behavior ......................................................................63
3.23 Conclusion .................................................................................64
References ..........................................................................................64
Chapter 4 Effect of Biodiesel and Additives on Diesel Engine Efficiency
and Emission ......................................................................................71
4.1 Introduction ...............................................................................71
4.2 Metal Additives and Their Drawbacks ......................................73
4.3 Lower Alcohol Additives ...........................................................74
4.4 Higher Alcohol Additives ..........................................................76
4.5 Conclusion .................................................................................78
References ..........................................................................................78
Chapter 5 Recent Advanced Injection Strategy on Biodiesel Combustion .........85
5.1 Introduction ...............................................................................85
5.2 Single Injection on CRDI-Assisted Diesel Engine....................87
5.3 Split Injection Strategy ..............................................................88
5.4 Multiple Injection Strategy ........................................................89
5.5 Combination of Split Injection and EGR on Biodiesel
Combustion ...............................................................................90
5.6 Conclusion .................................................................................91
References ..........................................................................................92
Contents vii
Chapter 6 Low-Temperature Combustion Technology on Biodiesel
Combustion.........................................................................................97
6.1 Introduction ...............................................................................97
6.2 History and Different Methods Used for Emission
Reduction ...............................................................................99
6.2.1 Blending with Diesel .....................................................99
6.2.2 Exhaust Gas Recirculation System .............................100
6.2.3 Water Injection ............................................................101
6.2.4 Emulsion Technology ..................................................101
6.2.5 Combustion Geometry Modification ...........................102
6.2.6 Different Nozzle Opening Pressure and Timing .........103
6.2.6.1 Effect of Fuel Injection Timing ....................104
6.2.6.2 Effect of Fuel Injection Pressure (FIP) or
Nozzle Opening Pressure (NOP) .................104
6.2.7 Influence of Fuel Injection Timing and
Fuel Injection Pressure (FIP) on the Spray
Characteristics ..........................................................105
6.3 Low-Temperature Combustion (LTC) .....................................107
6.3.1 Different Methods for Attaining LTC .........................107
6.3.2 Importance of Advanced Injection Strategy
in the LTC ....................................................................108
6.3.3 Effect of Higher Injection Pressure in the
Electronic Injection Strategy .......................................109
6.3.4 Effect of Split Injection Strategy .................................111
6.4 Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) ............112
6.4.1 Challenges of HCCI Combustion ................................113
6.4.2 Factors Affecting Combustion Phasing Control ..........113
6.4.3 Higher Level of HC and CO along with
Combustion Noise .......................................................113
6.4.4 Operation Range..........................................................114
6.4.5 Cold Start ....................................................................114
6.4.6 Homogeneous Mixture Preparation ............................114
6.5 Premixed Charge Compression Ignition (PCCI) .....................115
6.6 Partially Premixed Charge Compression
Ignition (PPCI) ........................................................................116
6.7 Reactive Controlled Compression Ignition (RCCI) ................117
6.7.1 A Fundamental Concept of RCCI ...............................118
6.7.2 Importance of Fuel Reactivity .....................................118
6.7.3 Low Reactive Fuel Management .................................119
6.7.4 Biofuels Used in the RCCI Combustion .....................120
6.7.5 Single-Fuel RCCI Combustion ...................................121
6.8 Low-Temperature Combustion Advantages and
Challenges ........................................................................121
6.9 High-Efficiency Clean Combustion.........................................122
6.10 Conclusion ...............................................................................124
References ........................................................................................126
viii Contents
Chapter 7 Solid Waste Management .................................................................137
7.1 Introduction .............................................................................137
7.2 Waste Quantities and Characterization ....................................138
7.3 Storage and Collection of Solid Wastes ..................................140
7.4 Facilities for Materials Recovery and Recycling ....................141
7.5 Health and Safety Risks ..........................................................143
7.6 Environmental Pollution ..........................................................145
7.7 Different Technologies for Solid
Waste Management .................................................................147
7.8 Future Solid Waste Management Policy .................................152
7.9 Conclusion ...............................................................................153
References ........................................................................................154
Chapter 8 Assessment of Physicochemical Properties and Analytical
Characterization of Lignocellulosic Biomass ..................................163
8.1 Introduction .............................................................................163
8.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass Feedstocks Available for
Energy Purposes ......................................................................164
8.2.1 Agriculture...................................................................165
8.2.2 Forest ...........................................................................165
8.2.3 Industry .......................................................................165
8.3 Choice of Pre-Treatment Based on Biomass Types ................165
8.3.1 Acid/Alkali Treatment .................................................165
8.3.2 Ammonia Fiber Expansion ..........................................166
8.3.3 Steam Explosion..........................................................166
8.3.3.1 Variables Affecting Steam Explosion
Pre-Treatment ...............................................167
8.3.3.2 Moisture and Particle Size ...........................167
8.4 Physicochemical Properties of Lignocellulosic
Biomass for Engineering Applications ....................................167
8.4.1 Density ........................................................................167
8.4.1.1 Particle Density ............................................167
8.4.1.2 Bulk Density.................................................168
8.4.2 Flowability ..................................................................168
8.4.3 Particle Size .................................................................169
8.4.4 Moisture Sorption........................................................170
8.4.5 Thermal Properties ......................................................170
8.4.5.1 Thermal Conductivity ..................................170
8.4.5.2 Specific Heat ................................................171
8.5 Chemical Properties ................................................................171
8.5.1 Proximate Analysis......................................................171
8.5.2 Ultimate Analysis ........................................................172
8.5.3 Energy Content ............................................................173
8.5.4 Compositional Analysis ..............................................174
Contents ix
8.6 An Assessment of the Sustainability of Lignocellulosic
Biomass for Biorefining ..........................................................175
8.6.1 Lignocellulosic Feedstocks for Energy and
Economic Sustainability..............................................176
8.6.2 Biofuels and Food Security .........................................178
8.6.3 Life Cycle Assessment of Lignocellulosic Biomass
and Biofuels ................................................................179
8.7 Conclusions .............................................................................180
References ........................................................................................180
Chapter 9 Lignocellulosic Biomass Conversion into Second-
and Third-Generation Biofuels ........................................................187
9.1 Introduction .............................................................................187
9.1.1 Energy Security and Greenhouse
Emission vs Biofuel ....................................................188
9.1.2 Bioenergy around the Globe .......................................190
9.2 Biomass Gasification ...............................................................191
9.2.1 Gasification Chemistry ................................................191
9.2.2 Gasifying Medium ......................................................193
9.2.3 Equivalence Ratio........................................................193
9.2.4 Gasifier Temperature ...................................................194
9.3 Gasifier Design ........................................................................194
9.3.1 Fixed Bed Gasifiers .....................................................195
9.3.1.1 Updraft Gasifier ............................................195
9.3.1.2 Downdraft Gasifier .......................................199
9.3.1.3 Cross Draft Gasifier......................................200
9.3.2 Fluidized Bed Gasifier.................................................200
9.3.2.1 Circulating Fluid Bed Gasifier .....................200
9.3.2.2 Twin Fluid Bed Gasifier ...............................200
9.3.1.3 Entrained Bed Gasifier .................................201
9.4 Gas Cleaning and Cooling .......................................................201
9.4.1 Cleaning Dust from the Gas ........................................201
9.4.2 Tar Cracking ................................................................202
9.4.2.1 Catalytic Cracking ........................................202
9.4.2.2 Thermal Cracking .........................................202
9.5 Alcohol Production ..................................................................202
9.5.1 Thermodynamics of Bio-Methanol Synthesis .............202
9.5.2 Unique Higher Alcohol Synthesis ...............................203
9.5.2.1 Biobutanol Production .................................203
9.5.2.2 Green Diesel Production ..............................204
9.6 Application of Biofuel in Fuel Cells .......................................204
9.6.1 Transport and Energy Generation ...............................204
9.6.2 Implantable Power Sources .........................................204
9.6.3 Wastewater Treatment .................................................205
9.6.4 Robots .........................................................................205