Table Of ContentAdvanced Remote Sensing Technology
for Tsunami Modelling and
Forecasting
Maged Marghany
School of Humanities
Geography Division
Universiti Sains Malaysia
11800 USM
Pulau Pinang
Malaysia
p,
p,
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
Cover illustrations provided by the author of the book, Dr. Maged Marghany.
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Dedicated to
My mother Faridah
my wife
my daughter who assisted me to
model 4-D image
and
Nikola Tesla who is teaching me to be a real scientist
Preface
Remote sensing scientists attempt to promote advanced technology of satellite developments to forecast
the future tsunamis. There were various satellite images that showed the horror of the tragic Asian tsunami
of the 26 December 2004. Regardless of advanced remote sensing technology, remote sensing scientists
could not prevent the occurrence of the savage tsunami of 11 March 2011 in Japan. In this regard, the
tsunami of 11 March 2011, was felt world wide, from Norway’s fjords to Antarctica’s ice sheet. Tsunami
debris continued to wash up on North American beaches, even two years later. Conversely, the unexpected
disaster record goes to the boxing day of 2004 tsunami where the wave transmissions finished within three
days into the Atlantic Ocean and changed the Earth’s rotation speed. Besides, double than 300,000 people
were killed or went missing behind those remote sensing advanced technologies.
Nowadays, the innovation in space technologies has generated a new trend for the tsunami’s
observation and monitoring from space. Consequently, the rapid innovation of sensor developments allows
high resolution of less than 1 m for optical satellite such as GeoEye-1 satellite, which collects images
at nadir up to 60° with 0.41-meter panchromatic (black and white) and 1.65 m multispectral resolution.
Synthetic aperture radar (SAR), as a result, also delivered 1 m high resolution image which is assembled
by TerraSAR-X spotlight mode. In these contexts, advanced tsunami disaster observation from space
has commenced novel perceptions of environmental research. The restricted ranges of satellite sensors
had detected the 2004 tsunami. In this regard, optical satellite data in low resolution, with 250 to 500 m
for instance, TERRA and AQUA MODIS were operated. Furthermore, medium resolution satellite data,
within higher than 10 m for instance, LANDSAT, IRS, and SPOT-5 monitored the damages of the 2004
tsunami. The high resolution satellite data with less than 1 m such as IKONOS and QuickBird of pre and
post tsunami period were implemented to detect the damage. Besides, the altimeter satellite data had given
precise performance to monitor the tsunami wave propagation from the epicentre towards the Indian Ocean.
Nevertheless, the microwave imaging satellite data of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) were totally absent
to monitor the first tsunami wave propagation. The shortage of SAR data during the 2004 tsunami event
could be due to non-visiting of the satellite of epicentre zone and other affected areas.
The majority of the tsunami remote sensing studies were focused on using fundamental image
processing such as classical image processing tools or conventional edge detection procedures. None of
those studies integrated modern physics, applied mathematics, signal and communication with remote
sensing data. Without this logical integration, alarm warning system cannot build perfect security matrix.
Indeed, remote sensing technology is not an art to produce colourful maps but it is advanced technology
based on modern and applied physics. The main question that can be raised up is what are the uses of multi
satellite sensors advanced remote sensing technology to prevent the occurrence of the tsunami disasters.
Satellite remote sensing has numerous promising applications in a wide range of tsunami disciplines.
Exploiting satellite data, the status and temporal growth of the tsunami disasters over large areas at short
time intervals can be monitored accurately. Integrating this with in situ data and mathematical models
allows us to monitor and emphasize the vital processes at work in huge areas, such as snow cover evolution,
vegetation development or landslide movements.
The scope of the book is restricted to remote sensing data available for the 2004 tsunami. The first
chapters of the book discuss the tsunami theories, and the fundamentals of optical remote sensing theories,
as the major remote sensing data covering the 2004 tsunami events were optical data with different
resolutions. The specific issue of alimentary satellite data which tracked the tsunami wave propagation
has been addressed in this book. This book has also attempted to introduce a new image processing tool
vi Advanced Remote Sensing Technology for Tsunami Modelling and Forecasting
for monitoring tsunami disaster. These tools are advanced image processing tools which involve fuzzy
B-spline for 3-D reconstruction of tsunami wave propagation in high resolution satellite data of QuickBird.
This assists in understanding the spelling of Arabic words of Allah along Sri Lanka coastal waters. In
addition, the new study involved in this book talks about the mechanisms of internal wave generated by
tsunami, specially in Andaman Sea using SAR satellite data.
More advanced studies and a new work of 4-D image reconstructions of non-coherence optical satellite
data of QuickBird are presented. This work is done by implementing a new concept of modern hologram
interferometry by computer hologram generation. It is impossible to retrieve the hologram fringes from
QuickBird data or other optical remote sensing due to an absence of phase information. Consequently, it
may be possible to implement the hologram interferometry from optical satellite data by considering the
procedures of incoherent hologram.
The impact of the tsunami on the physical properties of the coastal waters, especially Aceh is also
addressed. In addition, the utilization of microwave ENVISAT SAR data to investigate the generation of
internal wave in the Adaman Sea post tsunami is also discussed. In this regard, we implemented a new
approach of image processing of Particle swarm optimization (PSO).
Finally, the last chapter involves quantum mechanics theory based on Schrödinger equation to forecast
the future tsunami in the Malacca Straits due to plate tectonic activity north of the Sunda Trench. Beside
the impact of Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) for causing massive destructive tsunami along
the Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Arabian Gulf, Sudan and Egypt, the split of the plate of African Horn is also
discussed.
The main question is: can the Malaysian and Singaporean coastal waters be striked by huge tsunami
wave heights? What is the travelling period for the tsunami to reach Johor and Singaporean coastal waters
and what are the breaking wave heights that can strike the Malacca Straits with future tsunami? The answers
of these questions are addressed scientifically in the last chapter of this book.
Maged Marghany,Ph.D
Associate Professor
School of Humanities
Universiti Sains Malaysia
11800 USM
Contents
Dedication iii
Preface v
1 Principles of Tsunami 1
1.1 Definition of Tsunami 1
1.1.1 Comments on Tsunami Definition 1
1.2 Tsunami Terminology 2
1.3 Physical Characteristics of Tsunami 9
1.4 Tsunami Classifications 9
1.5 How do Tsunamis Differ from other Water Waves? 11
1.6 The Wave Train 13
1.7 The Shoaling Effect 13
2 Tsunami Generation Mechanisms 15
2.1 Causes of Tsunami 15
2.1.1 Tsunami Generation 15
2.1.2 Plate Tectonics: The Main Features 17
2.1.3 Type of Plate Tectonic Boundaries 17
2.1.3.1 Divergent Boundaries 18
2.1.3.2 Convergence Boundaries 19
2.1.3.3 Transform Boundaries 21
2.1.4 Where is the Evidence for Plate Tectonics? 22
2.1.5 Continental Drift 22
2.2 How do Earthquakes Generate Tsunami? 26
2.3 How do Landslides, Volcanic Eruptions, and Cosmic Collisions Generate Tsunamis? 26
2.4 What Happens When a Tsunami Encounters Land? 27
2.5 Tsunami Generation Mechanisms 28
2.5.1 Fault Slip 28
2.5.2 Split 29
2.5.3 Amplification 29
2.5.4 Tsunami Run-up 30
2.5.5 Do Tsunamis Stop Once on Land? 31
2.6 Historical Tsunami Records 31
2.7 Why aren’t Tsunamis Seen at Sea or from the Air? 33
2.8 Combination of Tsunami, Tide, Sea Level, and Storm Surge 33
viii Advanced Remote Sensing Technology for Tsunami Modelling and Forecasting
3 Tsunami of Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake 26 December 2004 34
3.1 Why Earthquakes and Tsunamis occur in the Sumatra Region 34
3.2 Rupture of 2004 Earthquake and Tsunami 36
3.3 How Earthquakes occur in the Sumatra Region? 36
3.4 Mechanisms of Sumatran Earthquake and Tsunami 38
3.5 Physical Characteristics of the 2004 Earthquake 39
3.6 2004 Tsunami Beaming 40
3.7 Energy of the Earthquake and its Effects 41
3.8 Propagation of 2004 Tsunami 43
3.9 Paths of Tsunami along Andaman Sea 45
3.10 Retreat and Rise Cycle 47
4 Novel Theories of Tsunami Generation Mechanisms 50
4.1 5,000 Years of Tsunamis 50
4.2 Tsunami Recurrence 52
4.3 Can Tsunami Cause Marine Landslide? 52
4.3.1 Mechanisms of Earthquake Causing Landslides 53
4.4 Slow Slip and Tsunami 54
4.5 Low-frequency Earthquake Event 57
4.5.1 Characteristics of Low-frequency Earthquakes 57
4.6 New Tsunami Generation Mechanisms and Models 59
4.7 Molecular Hydrodynamic Tsunami Generation 61
4.8 Can Gravity Cause Tsunami? 62
4.8.1 Why Would Gravity and Topography be Related to Seismic Activity? 62
4.9 Did Himalayan Mountain Cause 2004 Tsunami? 63
4.10 Did Deep Heat Spawn the 2004 Tsunami? 64
4.11 Can Nuclear Bomb Create a Tsunami? 65
4.12 Can HAARP Technology Create a Tsunami? 66
5 Modification of the Earth’s Rotation by 2004 Earthquake 67
5.1 Earth Rotation 67
5.2 Forces Affecting the Length of the Earth’s Day 68
5.2.1 Tidal Forces and Earthquakes 68
5.2.2 Wind Force 69
5.2.3 Madden-Julian Cycle 69
5.2.4 Climate Changes 70
5.3 2004 Tsunami's Effects on Earth’s Rotation 70
5.3.1 Chandler Wobble or Variation of Latitude 70
5.3.2 How Chandler Wobble is Impacted by Earthquakes? 71
6 Principles of Optical Remote Sensing for Tsunami Observation 74
6.1 Introduction to Remote Sensing 74
6.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum 74
6.2.1 Radio Waves 75
Contents ix
6.2.2 Microwaves 75
6.2.3 Infrared 75
6.2.4 Visible Light 75
6.2.5 Ultraviolet 75
6.2.6 X-beams 76
6.2.7 Gamma-rays 76
6.3 Energy in Electromagnetic Waves 77
6.4 Photoelectric Effect 78
6.5 Young’s Slits 79
6.6 Electromagnetic-radiation-matter Interactions 80
6.7 Interaction Processes on Remote Sensing 84
6.8 Black Body Radiation 85
6.9 Spectral Signatures 87
6.10 Spatial Dimension 88
6.10.1 Spectral Resolution 88
6.10.2 Spatial Resolution 90
6.10.3 Temporal Resolution 91
7 Potential of Optical Remote Sensing Satellite for Monitoring Tsunami 94
7.1 Introduction 94
7.2 Tsunami Observation from High Resolution Satellite Images 94
7.2.1 Spectral Signature Analysis using Optical High-resolution Satellite Imagery 94
7.2.2 NDVI Analysis using Optical High-resolution Satellite Imagery 96
7.2.3 Damage Index using High Resolution Satellite Data 99
7.3 Tsunami Inundation Mapping using Terra-ASTER Images 100
7.4 Tsunami Observation from Low Resolution Satellite Images 104
8 Modelling Shoreline Change Rates Due to the Tsunami Impact 107
8.1 Shoreline Definition Regarding Tsunami 107
8.1.1 Optical Remote Sensing for Shoreline Extraction 109
8.1.2 Hypotheses and Objective 110
8.2 Study Areas and Data Acquisitions 110
8.3 Automatic Detection of Shoreline Extraction 112
8.3.1 Image Segmentation 112
8.3.2 Theory of Edge Detection 114
8.3.3 Sobel Algorithm 114
8.3.3.1 Sobel Algorithm Output 116
8.3.4 Canny Algorithm 119
8.3.4.1 Apply Gaussian Filter to Smooth the Image in Order to 119
Remove the Noise
8.3.4.2 Finding the Intensity Gradient of the Image 119
8.3.4.3 Non-maximum Suppression 121
8.3.4.4 Double Threshold 121
8.3.4.5 Edge Tracking by Hysteresis 121
8.3.4.6 Canny Algorithm Output 121
