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I Advanced Microwave Circuits and Systems Advanced Microwave Circuits and Systems Edited by Vitaliy Zhurbenko In-Tech intechweb.org Published by In-Teh In-Teh Olajnica 19/2, 32000 Vukovar, Croatia Abstracting and non-profit use of the material is permitted with credit to the source. Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published articles. Publisher assumes no responsibility liability for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained inside. After this work has been published by the In-Teh, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are an author or editor, and the make other personal use of the work. © 2010 In-teh www.intechweb.org Additional copies can be obtained from: [email protected] First published April 2010 Printed in India Technical Editor: Sonja Mujacic Cover designed by Dino Smrekar Advanced Microwave Circuits and Systems, Edited by Vitaliy Zhurbenko p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-087-2 V Preface This book is based on recent research work conducted by the authors dealing with the design and development of active and passive microwave components, integrated circuits and systems. It is divided into seven parts. In the first part comprising the first two chapters, alternative concepts and equations for multiport network analysis and characterization are provided. A thru-only de-embedding technique for accurate on-wafer characterization is introduced. The second part of the book corresponds to the analysis and design of ultra-wideband low- noise amplifiers (LNA). The LNA is the most critical component in a receiving system. Its performance determines the overall system sensitivity because it is the first block to amplify the received signal from the antenna. Hence, for the achievement of high receiver performance, the LNA is required to have a low noise figure with good input matching as well as sufficient gain in a wide frequency range of operation, which is very difficult to achieve. Most circuits demonstrated are not stable across the frequency band, which makes these amplifiers prone to self-oscillations and therefore limit their applicability. The trade-off between noise figure, gain, linearity, bandwidth, and power consumption, which generally accompanies the LNA design process, is discussed in this part. The requirement from an amplifier design differs for different applications. A power amplifier is a type of amplifier which drives the antenna of a transmitter. Unlike LNA, a power amplifier is usually optimized to have high output power, high efficiency, optimum heat dissipation and high gain. The third part of this book presents power amplifier designs through a series of design examples. Designs undertaken include a switching mode power amplifier, Doherty power amplifier, and flexible power amplifier architectures. In addition, distortion analysis and power combining techniques are considered. Another key element in most microwave systems is a signal generator. It forms the heart of all kinds of communication and radar systems. The fourth part of this book is dedicated to signal generators such as voltage-controlled oscillators and electron devices for millimeter wave and submillimeter wave applications. This part also covers studies of integrated buffer circuits. Passive components are indispensable elements of any electronic system. The increasing demands to miniaturization and cost effectiveness push currently available technologies to the limits. Some considerations to meet the growing requirements are provided in the fifth part of this book. The following part deals with circuits based on LTCC and MEMS technologies. VI The book concludes with chapters considering application of microwaves in measurement and sensing systems. This includes topics related to six-port reflectometers, remote network analysis, inverse scattering for microwave imaging systems, spectroscopy for medical applications and interaction with transponders in medical sensors. Editor Vitaliy Zhurbenko VII Contents Preface V 1. Mixed-mode S-parameters and Conversion Techniques 001 Allan Huynh, Magnus Karlsson and Shaofang Gong 2. A thru-only de-embedding method for on-wafer characterization of multiport networks 013 Shuhei Amakawa, Noboru Ishihara and Kazuya Masu 3. Current reuse topology in UWB CMOS LNA 033 TARIS Thierry 4. Multi-Block CMOS LNA Design for UWBWLAN Transform-Domain Receiver Loss of Orthogonality 059 Mohamed Zebdi, Daniel Massicotte and Christian Jesus B. Fayomi 5. Flexible Power Amplifier Architectures for Spectrum Efficient Wireless Applications 073 Alessandro Cidronali, Iacopo Magrini and Gianfranco Manes 6. The Doherty Power Amplifier 107 Paolo Colantonio, Franco Giannini, Rocco Giofrè and Luca Piazzon 7. Distortion in RF Power Amplifiers and Adaptive Digital Base-Band Predistortion 133 Mazen Abi Hussein, YideWang and Bruno Feuvrie 8. Spatial power combining techniques for semiconductor power amplifiers 159 Zenon R. Szczepaniak 9. Field Plate Devices for RF Power Applications 177 Alessandro Chini 10. Implementation of Low Phase Noise Wide-Band VCO with Digital Switching Capacitors 199 Meng-Ting Hsu, Chien-Ta Chiu and Shiao-Hui Chen 11. Intercavity Stimulated Scattering in Planar FEM as a Base for Two-Stage Generation of Submillimeter Radiation 213 Andrey Arzhannikov VIII 12. Complementary high-speed SiGe and CMOS buffers 227 Esa Tiiliharju 13. Integrated Passives for High-Frequency Applications 249 Xiaoyu Mi and Satoshi Ueda 14. Modeling of Spiral Inductors 291 Kenichi Okada and Kazuya Masu 15. Mixed-Domain Fast Simulation of RF and Microwave MEMS-based Complex Networks within Standard IC Development Frameworks 313 Jacopo Iannacci 16. Ultra Wideband Microwave Multi-Port Reflectometer in Microstrip-Slot Technology: Operation, Design and Applications 339 Marek E. Bialkowski and Norhudah Seman 17. Broadband Complex Permittivity Determination for Biomedical Applications 365 Radim Zajíˇcek and Jan Vrba 18. Microwave Dielectric Behavior of Ayurvedic Medicines 387 S.R.Chaudhari ,R.D.Chaudhari and J.B.Shinde 19. Analysis of Power Absorption by Human Tissue in Deeply Implantable Medical Sensor Transponders 407 Andreas Hennig, Gerd vom Bögel 20. UHF Power Transmission for Passive Sensor Transponders 421 Tobias Feldengut, Stephan Kolnsberg and Rainer Kokozinski 21. Remote Characterization of Microwave Networks - Principles and Applications 437 Somnath Mukherjee 22. Solving Inverse Scattering Problems Using Truncated Cosine Fourier Series Expansion Method 455 Abbas Semnani and Manoochehr Kamyab 23. Electromagnetic Solutions for the Agricultural Problems 471 Hadi Aliakbarian, Amin Enayati, Maryam Ashayer Soltani, Hossein Ameri Mahabadi and Mahmoud Moghavvemi Mixed-mode S-parameters and Conversion Techniques 1 Mixed-mode S-parameters and Conversion Techniques 1 x Allan Huynh, Magnus Karlsson and Shaofang Gong Mixed-mode S-parameters and Conversion Techniques Allan Huynh, Magnus Karlsson and Shaofang Gong Linköping University Sweden 1. Introduction Differential signaling in analog circuits is an old technique that has been utilized for more than 50 years. During the last decades, it has also been becoming popular in digital circuit design, when low voltage differential signaling (LVDS) became common in high-speed digital systems. Today LVDS is widely used in advanced electronics such as laptop computers, test and measurement instrument, medical equipment and automotive. The reason is that with increased clock frequencies and short edge rise/fall times, crosstalk and electromagnetic interferences (EMI) appear to be critical problems in high-speed digital systems. Differential signaling is aimed to reduce EMI and noise issues in order to improve the signal quality. However, in traditional microwave theory, electric current and voltage are treated as single-ended and the S-parameters are used to describe single-ended signaling. This makes advanced microwave and RF circuit design and analysis difficult, when differential signaling is utilized in modern communication circuits and systems. This chapter introduces the technique to deal with differential signaling in microwave and millimeter wave circuits. 2. Differential Signal Differential signaling is a signal transmission method where the transmitting signal is sent in pairs with the same amplitude but with mutual opposite phases. The main advantage with the differential signaling is that any introduced noise equally affects both the differential transmission lines if the two lines are tightly coupled together. Since only the difference between the lines is considered, the introduced common-mode noise can be rejected at the receiver device. However, due to manufacturing imperfections, signal unbalance will occur resulting in that the energy will convert from differential-mode to common-mode and vice versa, which is known as cross-mode conversion. To damp the common-mode currents, a common-mode choke can be used (without any noticeable effect on the differential currents) to prevent radiated emissions from the differential lines. To produce the electrical field strength from microamperes of common-mode current, milliamperes of differential current are needed (Clayton, 2006). Moreover, the generated electric and magnetic fields from a differential line pair are more localized compared to 2 Advanced Microwave Circuits and Systems those from single-ended lines. Owing to the ability of noise rejection, the signal swing can be mode noise for a differential pair of signal. Fig. 1 shows the electric and magnetic field lines decreased compared to a single-ended design and thereby the power can be saved. in the odd- and even-mode transmissions on the two parallel microstrips. Fig. 1a shows that When the signal on one line is independent of the signal on the adjacent line, i.e., an the odd-mode signaling causes coupling due to the electric field between the microstrips, uncoupled differential pair, the structure does not utilize the full potential of a differential while in the even-mode shown in Fig 1b, there is no direct electric coupling between the design. To fully utilize the differential design, it is beneficial to start by minimizing the lines. Fig. 1c shows that the magnetic field in the odd-mode has no coupling between the spacing between two lines to create the coupling as strong as possible. Thereafter, the two lines while, as shown in Fig. 1d, in the even-mode the magnetic field is coupled conductors width is adjusted to obtain the desired differential impedance. By doing this, the between the two lines. coupling between the differential line pair is maximized to give a better common-mode Current into the page Current out ofthe page rejection. S-parameters are very commonly used when designing and verifying linear RF and microwave designs for impedance matching to optimize gain and minimize noise. Although, traditional S-parameter representation is a very powerful tool in circuit analysis and measurement, it is limited to single-ended RF and microwave designs. In 1995, Bockelman and Einsenstadt introduced the mixed-mode S-parameters to extend the theory to include differential circuits. However, owing to the coupling effects between the coupled differential transmission lines, the odd- and even-mode impedances are not equal to the unique characteristic impedance. This leads to the fact that a modified mixed-mode S- parameters representation is needed. In this chapter, by starting with the familiar concepts of coupling, crosstalk and terminations, mixed-mode S-parameters will be introduced. a. electric field in odd-mode b. electric field in even-mode Furthermore, conversion techniques between different modes of S-parameters will be described. 2.1 Coupling and Crosstalk Like in single-ended signaling, differential transmission lines need to be correctly terminated, otherwise reflections arise and distortions are introduced into the system. In a system where parallel transmission lines exist, either in differential signaling or in parallel single-ended lines, line-to-line coupling arises and it will cause characteristic impedance c. magnetic field in odd-mode d. magnetic field in even-mode variations. The coupling between the parallel single-ended lines is also known as crosstalk Fig. 1. Odd- and even-mode electric and magnetic fields for two parallel microstrips. and it is related to the mutual inductance (L ) and capacitance (C ) existing between the m m lines. The induced crosstalk or noise can be described with a simple approximation as following 2.2 Odd-mode (1) The induced crosstalk or voltage noise in a pair of parallel transmission lines can be (cid:2914)(cid:2893)(cid:3162)(cid:3176)(cid:3167)(cid:3180)(cid:3163)(cid:3176) approximated with Equation 1. For the case of two parallel transmission lines the equation (cid:1848)(cid:3041)(cid:3042)(cid:3036)(cid:3046)(cid:3032) (cid:3404)(cid:15)(cid:2923) (cid:2914)(cid:2930) can be rewritten as following (2) (cid:3031)(cid:3023)(cid:3279)(cid:3293)(cid:3284)(cid:3297)(cid:3280)(cid:3293) (3) (cid:1835)(cid:3041)(cid:3042)(cid:3036)(cid:3046)(cid:3032) (cid:3404)(cid:1829)(cid:3040) (cid:3031)(cid:3047) (cid:3031)(cid:3010)(cid:3117) (cid:3031)(cid:3010)(cid:3118) where Vnoise and Inoise are the induced voltage and current noises on the adjacent line and (cid:1848)(cid:2869)(cid:3404)(cid:1838)(cid:2868) (cid:3031)(cid:3047) (cid:3397)(cid:1838)(cid:3040) (cid:3031)(cid:3047) V and I are the driving voltage and current on the active line. Since both the voltage (4) driver driver and current noises are induced by the rate of current and voltage changes, extra care is (cid:3031)(cid:3010)(cid:3118) (cid:3031)(cid:3010)(cid:3117) (cid:1848)(cid:2870)(cid:3404)(cid:1838)(cid:2868) (cid:3031)(cid:3047) (cid:3397)(cid:1838)(cid:3040) (cid:3031)(cid:3047) needed for high-speed applications. where L is the equivalent lumped-self-inductance in the transmission line and L is the 0 m The coupling between the parallel lines depends firstly on the spacing between the lines and mutual inductance arisen due to the coupling between the lines. Signal propagation in the secondly on the signal pattern sent on the parallel lines. Two signal modes are defined, i.e., odd-mode results in I = -I, since the current is always driven with equal magnitude but in 1 2 odd- and even-modes. The odd-mode is defined such that the driven signals in the two opposite directions. Substituting it into Equations 3 and 4 yeilds adjacent lines have the same amplitude but a 180 degree of relative phase, which can be related to differential signal. The even-mode is defined such that the driven signals in the (5) two adjacent lines have the same amplitude and phase, which can be related to common- (cid:3031)(cid:3010)(cid:3117) (cid:1848)(cid:2869)(cid:3404)(cid:4666)(cid:1838)(cid:2868)(cid:3398)(cid:1838)(cid:3040)(cid:4667)(cid:3031)(cid:3047)