Advanced Aircraft Design: Conceptual Design, Technology and Optimization of Subsonic Civil Airplanes

425 Pages·2013·4.149 MB·English

by  Egbert Torenbeek

ADVANCED AIRCRAFT
DESIGN
Aerospace Series List
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Environment:Volume1-PlatformKinematicsandSynthetic
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AircraftSystems,ThirdEdition MoirandSeabridge March2008
IntroductiontoAircraftAeroelasticityandLoads WrightandCooper December2007
StabilityandControlofAircraftSystems Langton September2006
MilitaryAvionicsSystems MoirandSeabridge February2006
DesignandDevelopmentofAircraftSystems MoirandSeabridge June2004
AircraftLoadingandStructuralLayout Howe May2004
AircraftDisplaySystems Jukes December2003
CivilAvionicsSystems MoirandSeabridge December2002
ADVANCED AIRCRAFT
DESIGN
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN, ANALYSIS
AND OPTIMIZATION OF SUBSONIC
CIVIL AIRPLANES
EgbertTorenbeek
DelftUniversityofTechnology,TheNetherlands
A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
(cid:2)C 2013EgbertTorenbeek
Allrightsreserved2013JohnWileyandSons,Ltd.
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Torenbeek,Egbert.
Advancedaircraftdesign:conceptualdesign,analysis,andoptimizationofsubsoniccivilairplanes/Egbert
Torenbeek.
pagescm
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN978-1-118-56811-8(cloth)
1.Transportplanes–Designandconstruction. 2.Jetplanes–Designandconstruction.
3.Airplanes–Performance. I.Title.
TL671.2.T668 2013
629.133’34–dc23
2013005449
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.
ISBN:9781119969303
Typesetin10/12ptTimesbyAptaraInc.,NewDelhi,India
Contents
Foreword xv
SeriesPreface xix
Preface xxi
Acknowledgements xxv
1 DesignoftheWell-TemperedAircraft 1
1.1 HowAircraftDesignDeveloped 1
1.1.1 EvolutionofJetlinersandExecutiveAircraft 1
1.1.2 AFrameworkforAdvancedDesign 4
1.1.3 AnalyticalDesignOptimization 4
1.1.4 ComputationalDesignEnvironment 5
1.2 ConceptFinding 6
1.2.1 AdvancedDesign 6
1.2.2 Pre-conceptualStudies 7
1.3 ProductDevelopment 8
1.3.1 ConceptDefinition 10
1.3.2 PreliminaryDesign 11
1.3.3 DetailDesign 13
1.4 BaselineDesigninaNutshell 13
1.4.1 BaselineSizing 13
1.4.2 PowerPlant 15
1.4.3 WeightandBalance 16
1.4.4 Structure 16
1.4.5 PerformanceAnalysis 17
1.4.6 ClosingtheLoop 18
1.5 AutomatedDesignSynthesis 19
1.5.1 ComputationalSystemsRequirements 19
1.5.2 Examples 20
1.5.3 ParametricSurveys 21
1.6 TechnologyAssessment 22
1.7 StructureoftheOptimizationProblem 25
1.7.1 AnalysisVersusSynthesis 25
1.7.2 ProblemClassification 26
Bibliography 27
vi Contents
2 EarlyConceptualDesign 31
2.1 ScenarioandRequirements 31
2.1.1 WhatDrivesaDesign? 31
2.1.2 CivilAirplaneCategories 33
2.1.3 TopLevelRequirements 35
2.2 WeightTerminologyandPrediction 36
2.2.1 MethodClassification 36
2.2.2 BasicWeightComponents 37
2.2.3 WeightLimits 39
2.2.4 TransportCapability 39
2.3 TheUnityEquation 41
2.3.1 MissionFuel 43
2.3.2 EmptyWeight 44
2.3.3 DesignWeights 45
2.4 RangeParameter 46
2.4.1 AerodynamicEfficiency 47
2.4.2 SpecificFuelConsumptionandOverallEfficiency 48
2.4.3 BestCruiseSpeed 49
2.5 EnvironmentalIssues 51
2.5.1 EnergyandPayloadFuelEfficiency 51
2.5.2 ‘GreenerbyDesign’ 54
Bibliography 56
3 PropulsionandEngineTechnology 59
3.1 PropulsionLeadingtheWay 59
3.2 BasicConceptsofJetPropulsion 60
3.2.1 TurbojetThrust 60
3.2.2 TurbofanThrust 61
3.2.3 SpecificFuelConsumption 62
3.2.4 OverallEfficiency 63
3.2.5 ThermalandPropulsiveEfficiency 63
3.2.6 GeneralizedPerformance 65
3.2.7 MachNumberandAltitudeEffects 66
3.3 TurbopropEngines 67
3.3.1 PowerandSpecificFuelConsumption 67
3.3.2 GeneralizedPerformance 68
3.3.3 HighSpeedPropellers 69
3.4 TurbofanEngineLayout 70
3.4.1 BypassRatioTrends 70
3.4.2 RiseandFallofthePropfan 72
3.4.3 RebirthoftheOpenRotor? 74
3.5 PowerPlantSelection 74
3.5.1 PowerPlantLocation 75
3.5.2 AlternativeFuels 76
3.5.3 AircraftNoise 77
Bibliography 78
Contents vii
4 AerodynamicDragandItsReduction 81
4.1 BasicConcepts 81
4.1.1 Lift,DragandAerodynamicEfficiency 82
4.1.2 DragBreakdownandDefinitions 83
4.2 DecompositionSchemesandTerminology 84
4.2.1 PressureandFrictionDrag 84
4.2.2 ViscousDrag 85
4.2.3 VortexDrag 85
4.2.4 WaveDrag 86
4.3 SubsonicParasiteandInducedDrag 87
4.3.1 ParasiteDrag 87
4.3.2 MonoplaneInducedDrag 90
4.3.3 BiplaneInducedDrag 91
4.3.4 MultiplaneandBoxplaneInducedDrag 94
4.4 DragPolarRepresentations 95
4.4.1 Two-termApproximation 95
4.4.2 Three-termApproximation 96
4.4.3 ReynoldsNumberEffects 97
4.4.4 CompressibilityCorrection 98
4.5 DragPrediction 99
4.5.1 InterferenceDrag 100
4.5.2 RoughnessandExcrescences 101
4.5.3 CorrectionsDependentonOperation 102
4.5.4 EstimationofMaximumSubsonicL/D 102
4.5.5 Low-SpeedConfiguration 104
4.6 ViscousDragReduction 106
4.6.1 WettedArea 107
4.6.2 TurbulentFrictionDrag 108
4.6.3 NaturalLaminarFlow 108
4.6.4 LaminarFlowControl 110
4.6.5 HybridLaminarFlowControl 111
4.6.6 Gains,ChallengesandBarriersofLFC 112
4.7 InducedDragReduction 114
4.7.1 WingSpan 114
4.7.2 SpanwiseCamber 115
4.7.3 Non-planarWingSystems 115
Bibliography 115
5 FromTubeandWingtoFlyingWing 121
5.1 TheCaseforFlyingWings 121
5.1.1 Northrop’sAll-WingAircraft 121
5.1.2 FlyingWingControversy 123
5.1.3 WhitherAll-WingAirliners? 124
5.1.4 FundamentalIssues 126
5.2 AllocationofUsefulVolume 127
5.2.1 IntegrationoftheUsefulLoad 128
5.2.2 StudyGroundRules 128
viii Contents
5.2.3 VolumeRatio 129
5.2.4 Zero-LiftDrag 130
5.2.5 GeneralizedAerodynamicEfficiency 131
5.2.6 PartialOptima 132
5.3 SurveyofAerodynamicEfficiency 134
5.3.1 AltitudeVariation 134
5.3.2 AspectRatioandSpan 135
5.3.3 Engine-AirframeMatching 136
5.4 SurveyoftheParameterML/D 138
5.4.1 OptimumFlightConditions 138
5.4.2 TheDragParameter 139
5.5 IntegratedConfigurationsCompared 140
5.5.1 ConventionalBaseline 141
5.5.2 IsaWingAloneSufficient? 143
5.5.3 BlendedWingBody 144
5.5.4 HybridFlyingWing 146
5.5.5 SpanLoader 147
5.6 FlyingWingDesign 149
5.6.1 Hang-UpsorShowstopper? 149
5.6.2 StructuralDesignandWeight 150
5.6.3 TheFlyingWing:WillItFly? 151
Bibliography 152
6 CleanSheetDesign 157
6.1 DominantandRadicalConfigurations 157
6.1.1 EstablishedConfigurations 157
6.1.2 NewParadigms 159
6.2 MorphologyofShapes 159
6.2.1 Classification 160
6.2.2 LiftingSystems 160
6.2.3 PlanViewClassification 162
6.2.4 Strut-BracedWings 163
6.2.5 PropulsionandConceptIntegration 164
6.3 WingandTailConfigurations 165
6.3.1 AerodynamicLimits 165
6.3.2 TheBalancedDesign 167
6.3.3 Evaluation 168
6.3.4 RelaxedInherentStability 169
6.4 AircraftFeaturingaForeplane 169
6.4.1 CanardConfiguration 170
6.4.2 Three-SurfaceAircraft 172
6.5 Non-PlanarLiftingSystems 173
6.5.1 TransonicBoxplane 173
6.5.2 C-Wing 175
6.6 JoinedWingAircraft 177
6.6.1 StructuralPrinciplesandWeight 178
6.6.2 AerodynamicAspects 179
Contents ix
6.6.3 StabilityandControl 180
6.6.4 DesignIntegration 181
6.7 Twin-FuselageAircraft 182
6.7.1 DesignIntegration 185
6.8 Hydrogen-FuelledCommercialTransports 186
6.8.1 PropertiesofLH2 187
6.8.2 FuelSystem 188
6.8.3 HandlingSafety,EconomicsandLogistics 189
6.9 PromisingConcepts 189
Bibliography 190
7 AircraftDesignOptimization 197
7.1 ThePerfectDesign:AnIllusion? 197
7.2 ElementsofOptimization 198
7.2.1 DesignParameters 198
7.2.2 OptimalControlandDiscrete-VariableOptimization 199
7.2.3 BasicTerminology 200
7.2.4 Single-ObjectiveOptimization 201
7.2.5 UnconstrainedOptimizer 202
7.2.6 ConstrainedOptimizer 204
7.3 AnalyticalorNumericalOptimization? 206
7.3.1 AnalyticalApproach 206
7.3.2 MultivariateOptimization 207
7.3.3 UnconstrainedOptimization 209
7.3.4 ConstrainedOptimization 210
7.3.5 ResponseSurfaceApproximation 211
7.3.6 GlobalModels 212
7.4 LargeOptimizationProblems 213
7.4.1 ConceptSizingandEvaluation 213
7.4.2 MultidisciplinaryOptimization 214
7.4.3 SystemDecomposition 215
7.4.4 MultilevelOptimization 217
7.4.5 Multi-ObjectiveOptimization 218
7.5 PracticalOptimizationinConceptualDesign 219
7.5.1 ArgumentsoftheSceptic 219
7.5.2 ProblemStructure 220
7.5.3 SelectingSelectionVariables 220
7.5.4 DesignSensitivity 222
7.5.5 TheObjectiveFunction 222
Bibliography 223
8 TheoryofOptimumWeight 229
8.1 WeightEngineering:CoreofAircraftDesign 229
8.1.1 PredictionMethods 230
8.1.2 UseofStatistics 231
x Contents
8.2 DesignSensitivity 232
8.2.1 ProblemStructure 232
8.2.2 SelectionVariables 233
8.3 JetTransportEmptyWeight 234
8.3.1 WeightBreakdown 234
8.3.2 WingStructure(Item10) 235
8.3.3 FuselageStructure(Item11) 236
8.3.4 EmpennageStructure(Items12and13) 237
8.3.5 LandingGearStructure(Item14) 238
8.3.6 PowerPlantandEnginePylons(Items2and15) 238
8.3.7 Systems,FurnishingsandOperationalItems(Items3,4and5) 238
8.3.8 OperatingEmptyWeight:Example 239
8.4 DesignSensitivityofAirframeDrag 239
8.4.1 DragDecomposition 240
8.4.2 AerodynamicEfficiency 242
8.5 Thrust,PowerPlantandFuelWeight 243
8.5.1 InstalledThrustandPowerPlantWeight 243
8.5.2 MissionFuel 245
8.5.3 PropulsionWeightPenalty 245
8.5.4 WingandPropulsionWeightFraction 248
8.5.5 OptimumWeightFractionsCompared 249
8.6 Take-OffWeight,ThrustandFuelEfficiency 249
8.6.1 MaximumTake-OffWeight 249
8.6.2 InstalledThrustandFuelEnergyEfficiency 251
8.6.3 UnconstrainedOptimaCompared 252
8.6.4 RangeforGivenMTOW 253
8.6.5 ExtendedRangeVersion 254
8.7 SummaryandReflection 254
8.7.1 WhichFigureofMerit? 254
8.7.2 Conclusion 256
8.7.3 Accuracy 257
Bibliography 257
9 MatchingEnginesandAirframe 261
9.1 RequirementsandConstraints 261
9.2 Cruise-SizedEngines 262
9.2.1 InstalledTake-OffThrust 262
9.2.2 TheThumbprint 263
9.3 LowSpeedRequirements 265
9.3.1 StallingSpeed 265
9.3.2 Take-OffClimb 266
9.3.3 ApproachandLandingClimb 266
9.3.4 SecondSegmentClimbGradient 267
9.4 SchematicTake-OffAnalysis 267
9.4.1 DefinitionsofTake-OffFieldLength 268
9.4.2 Take-OffRun 269