Acidic Precipitation: Sources, Deposition, and Canopy Interactions PDF
Preview Acidic Precipitation: Sources, Deposition, and Canopy Interactions
Advances in Environmental Science D.C. Adriano and W. Salomons, Editors Editorial Board: Series Editors: D.e. Adriano w. Salomons University of Georgia's Savannah Delft Hydraulics Laboratory River Ecology Laboratory Institute for Soil Fertility P.O. Box E P.O. Box 30003 Aiken, South Carolina 2980 I NL-9750 RA Haren (GR) USA The Netherlands D.e. Adriano, Coordinating Editor Associate Editors: B.L. Bayne, Institute for Marine Environmental Research, Plymouth PLl 3DH, UK M. Chino, University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113, Japan AA Elseewi, Southern California Edison, Rosemead, CA 91770, USA M. Firestone, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA U. Forstner, Technical University of Hamburg-Harburg, 2100 Hamburg 90, FRG B.T. Hart, Chisholm Institute of Technology, Victoria 3145, Australia T.e. Hutchinson, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S lA4, Canada S.E. Lindberg, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA M.R. Overcash, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27650, USA AL. Page, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA Acidic Precipitation Volume 3 Sources, Deposition, and Canopy Interactions Edited by S.E. Lindberg, A.L. Page, and S.A. Norton Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Volume Editors: S.E. Lindberg A.L. Page Environmental Sciences Division Depanment of Soil and Oak Ridge National Laboratory Environmental Sciences P.O. Box 2008 University of California Oak Ridge, TN 37831 Riverside, CA 92521 USA USA S.A. Nonon Depanrnenl of Geological Sciences University of Maine Orono, ME 04469 USA Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Acidic pre<:ipitation. (Advances in environmental science) Bibliography: v. I, p. Incl udes indelt. ContenlS: v. I. Case studies/volume editors, D.C. Adriano and M. Havas- v. 2. Biological and ecological effects/D.C. Adriano and A.H. Johnson, editol'5-v. 3. Sources, deposition, and canopy interactions/S.E. Lindberg, A.L. Page. and SA Nonon. editors. I. Series. TD 19.5.42.A25 1989 363.7'386 88-37418 Printed on acid-free paper. 0 1990 by Springer-Verlag New York Inc. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1990 Copyright not claimed for works by U.s. Govemment employees. All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in pan without the written permission oft~ publisher (Springer-Verlag, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA), eltcept forbrief eltcerpls in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval,e1eClI'onic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc. in this publication, even if the former are nOI especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone. Typeset by McFarland Graphics and Design, Dillsburg, Pennsylvania. 987654)21 ISBN-lJ: 978-1-4612-8781-0 e-ISBN-I3: 978-1-4612-4454-7 DOl: 10. 10071978- 1-4612-4454-7 Preface to the Series In 1986, my colleague Prof. Dr. W. Salomons of the Institute for Soil Fertility of the Netherlands and I launched the new Advances in Environmental Science with Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. Immediately, we were faced with a task of what topics to cover. Our strategy was to adopt a thematic approach to address hotly debated contemporary environmental issues. After consulting with numerous colleagues from Western Europe and North America, we decided to address Acidic Precipitation, which we view as one of the most controversial issues today. This is the subject of the first five volumes of the new series, which cover relationships among emissions, deposition, and biological and ecological effects of acidic constituents. International experts from Canada, the United States, Western Europe, as well as from several industrialized countries in other regions, have generously contributed to this subseries, which is grouped into the following five volumes: Volume 1 Case Studies (D.C. Adriano and M. Havas, editors) Volume 2 Biological and Ecological Effects (D.C. Adriano and A.H. Johnson, editors) Volume 3 Sources, Deposition, and Canopy Interactions (S.E. Lindberg, A.L. Page, and S.A. Norton, editors) Volume 4 Soils, Aquatic Processes, and Lake Acidification (S.A. Norton, S.E. Lindberg, and A.L. Page, editors) Volume 5 International Overview and Assessment (T. Bresser and W. Salomons, editors) From the vast amount of consequential information discussed in this series, it will become apparent that acidic deposition should be seriously addressed by many countries of the world, in as much as severe damages have already been inflicted on numerous ecosystems. Furthermore, acidic constituents have also been shown to affect the integrity of structures of great historical values in vi Series Preface various places of the world. Thus, it is hoped that this up-to-date sub series would increase the "awareness" of the world's citizens and encourage governments to devote more attention and resources to address this issue. The series editors thank the international panel of contributors for bringing this timely series into completion. We also wish to acknowledge the very insightful input of the following colleagues: Prof. A.L. Page of the University of California, Prof. T.e. Hutchinson of the University of Toronto, and Dr. Steve Lindberg of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. We also wish to thank the superb effort and cooperation of the volume editors in handling their respective volumes. The constructive criticisms of chapter reviewers also deserve much appreciation. Finally, we wish to convey our appreciation to my secretary, Ms. Brenda Rosier, and my technician, Ms. Claire Carlson, for their very able assistance in various aspects of this series. Aiken, South Carolina Domy C. Adriano Coordinating Editor Preface to Acidic Precipitation, Volume 3 (Advances in Environmental Science) As a result of pioneering research in the 1960s and because of the real and perceived environmental effects described during the ensuing years, the term acidic precipitation has become commonplace in scientific and popular literature. In the last decade, governments throughout the world have responded to public pressure and to the concerns of the scientific community by establishing research programs on national and international scales. These programs have been designed to improve our understanding of the important links between atmospheric emissions and their potential environmental effects in both industrialized and developing nations. Acidic precipitation was studied initially because of its effects on aquatic systems. However, because reports from Western Europe in the early 1980s suggested a link with forest decline, acidic precipitation is now considered a potential environmental stress in terrestrial systems as well as in aquatic systems. As has been the case with many environmental issues of the twentieth century, acidic precipitation has its origin in emissions to the atmosphere of numerous compounds from both natural and man-made sources. This volume, the third in the series Advances in Environmental Science: Acidic Precipitation, emphasizes the atmospheric aspects of acidic precipitation and all that this term has come to include (e.g., toxic gases such as ozone, trace metals, aluminum, and oxides of nitrogen). It progresses from emissions of the precursors of acidic precipitation to their eventual deposition on environmental surfaces. The chapters in this volume describe the sources of acidic and basic airborne substances, their interactions in the atmosphere and with rain droplets, and their reactions with other airborne constituents such as aluminum and other metals. Also discussed are the use of metals as tracers of sources of the precursors of acidic precipitation and as tracers of historical deposition rates, the processes controlling the removal of airborne material as dry deposition and deposition interactions with the forest canopy, and past and future trends in atmospheric emissions and options for their abatement. With the National Acidic Precipitation Assessment Program of the United States nearing the 1990 completion date, and with the programs of Canada and many European viii Preface countries accelerating to reach a consensus on the role that atmospheric emissions and acidic precipitation play in the environment, publication of this series is timely. The editors thank the contributors to this volume for their efforts in describing a wide array of atmospheric topics, all of which are important to an understanding of the acidic precipitation issue. Oak Ridge, Tennessee Steven E Lindberg Riverside, California Albert L. Page Orono, Maine Stephen A. Norton Contents Series Preface .................................................... v Preface... ....... ...... ..... ... .. ............................... .. vii Contributors ..................................................... xiii Sources of Acids, Bases, and Their Precursors in the Atmosphere . . . 1 Roger L. Tanner I. Introduction and Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 II. Sources of Acids ............................................... 3 III. Sources of Acid-Neutralizing Substances (Bases) ................... 9 IV. Distribution of Atmospheric Acids and Bases ...................... 10 V. Gas-Aerosol Equilibria and Boundary Layer Mixing ................ 14 VI. Summary of Significant Acid-Formation Pathways.............. . .. . 15 References ................................•................... 17 Aerosol Sulfur Association with Aluminum in Eastern North America: Evidence for Solubilization of Atmospheric Trace Metals before Deposition ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 John W. Winchester I. Statement of the Problem ....................................... 21 II. Approach to the Problem ....................................... 23 III. Results ....................................................... 25 IV. Discussion .................................................... 45 References .................................................... 48 Source-Receptor Relationships for Atmospheric Trace Elements in Europe ........................................ 49 Joze! M Pacyna I. Introduction ................................................... 49 II. Emission Patterns of Atmospheric Trace Elements in Europe ......... 50 III. Long-Range Transport Models for Trace Elements in Europe ........ 53 IV. Application of Statistical Methods in Source-Receptor Studies ........ 62 x Contents V. Recommendations for Further Research 68 References ................................................... . 69 The History of Atmospheric Deposition of Cd, Hg, and Pb in North America: Evidence from Lake and Peat Bog Sediments ............ . 73 Stephen A. Norton, Peter 1. Dillon, R Douglas Evans, Gregory Mierle, and Jeffrey S. Kahl I. Introduction .................................................. . 74 II. Methods ..................................................... . 76 III. Results ...................................................... . 79 IV. Summary .................................................... . 96 References ................................................... . 97 Dry Deposition of Particles and Vapors ........................... . 103 Cliff l Davidson and Yee-Un Wu I. Introduction .................................................. . 103 II. The Process of Dry Deposition ................................. .. 108 III. Wind Tunnel Studies and Semiempirical Models ................... . 128 IV. Measurement Methods ......................................... . 152 V. Dry Deposition Data and Comparison with Model Predictions ....... . 170 VI. Summary .................................................... . 208 References ................................................... . 209 Dry Deposition of Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxide Gases to Forest Vegetation ................................. . 217 c.e Murphy, Jr., and J. T. Sigmon I. Introduction .................................................. . 217 II. Mechanisms of Dry Deposition of Gases ......................... . 220 III. Experimental Measurement of Deposition ........................ . 231 IV. Results of Measurements of Deposition .......................... . 233 V. Dry Deposition and the Response of Forests ...................... . 237 References ................................................... . 238 Throughfall Chemistry and Canopy Processing Mechanisms ........ 241 Douglas A. Schaefer and William A. Reiners I. Introduction ................................................... 241 II. Processes That Control Throughfall Chemistry ..................... 243 III. Hypothesized and Observed Throughfall Fluxes .................... 260 IV. Future Research ............................................... 268 Appendix: Sequential Throughfall Sampling Methods. ...... ......... 276 References .................................................... 278
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