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aaaj cover (i).qxd 01/05/2008 06:35 Page 1 ISSN 0951-3574 Volume 21Number 4 2008 Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal Accounting and gender revisited Guest Editors: Jane Broadbent and Linda Kirkham www.emeraldinsight.com Accounting, Auditing & ISSN 0951-3574 Volume 21 Accountability Journal Number 4 2008 Accounting and gender revisited Guest Editors Jane Broadbent and Linda Kirkham Access this journal online _______________________________ 463 CONTENTS Editorial advisory board _________________________________ 464 GUEST EDITORIAL Glass ceilings, glass cliffs or new worlds? Revisiting gender and accounting JaneBroadbent andLindaKirkham________________________________ 465 Mothering or auditing? The case of two Big Four in France Claire Dambrin andCaroline Lambert ______________________________ 474 Towards the feminization of accounting practice: lessons from the experiences of Japanese women in the accounting profession Naoko Komori__________________________________________________ 507 Moving the gender agenda or stirring chicken’s entrails? Where next for feminist methodologies in accounting? Kathryn Haynes ________________________________________________ 539 Green Owl and the Corn Maiden JesseDillardand Mary AnnReynolds_______________________________ 556 Access this journal electronically Thecurrent andpast volumes ofthis journalare available at: www.emeraldinsight.com/0951-3574.htm Youcan also search more than 175 additional Emeraldjournals in EmeraldManagement Xtra (www.emeraldinsight.com) See pagefollowing contents for full details ofwhat your access includes. Accounting histories of women: beyond recovery? CONTENTS StephenP.Walker_______________________________________________ 580 continued Strategic management and accounting processes: acknowledging gender Lee D. Parker __________________________________________________ 611 Calls for papers___________________________________________ 632 Announcement____________________________________________ 638 www.emeraldinsight.com/aaaj.htm Asasubscribertothisjournal,youcanbenefitfrominstant, Structuredabstracts electronicaccesstothistitleviaEmeraldManagementXtra.Your Emeraldstructuredabstractsprovideconsistent,clearand accessincludesavarietyoffeaturesthatincreasethevalueof informativesummariesofthecontentofthearticles,allowing yourjournalsubscription. fasterevaluationofpapers. 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Fax+44(0)1274785201 AAAJ EXECUTIVEEDITORIALBOARD ProfessorAndrewGoddard UniversityofSouthampton,UK 21,4 ProfessorAllanBarton TheAustralianNationalUniversity,Australia AssociateProfessorTheresaHammond BostonCollege,USA ProfessorGarryCarnegie UniversityofBallarat,Australia ProfessorJimHaslam DundeeUniversity,UK ProfessorDavidCooper UniversityofAlberta,Canada ProfessorJohnHolland UniversityofGlasgow,UK ProfessorRobertGray StAndrewsUniversity,UK ProfessorZahirulHoque 464 LaTrobeUniversity,Australia ProfessorTrevorHopper UniversityofManchester,UK ProfessorChristopherHumphrey UniversityofManchester,UK ProfessorIrvineLapsley UniversityofEdinburgh,UK ProfessorKerryJacobs AustralianNationalUniversity,Australia ProfessorTomLee StAndrewsUniversity,UK DrIngridJeacle TheUniversityofEdinburgh,UK EmeritusProfessorNormanMacintosh Queen’sUniversity,Canada ProfessorMikeJones CardiffUniversity,UK ProfessorRegMathews CharlesSturtUniversity,Australia MsLindaKirkham RobertGordonUniversity,UK ProfessorHiroshiOkano OsakaCityUniversity,Osaka,Japan ProfessorKatsuhikoKokubu KobeUniversity,Japan ProfessorDavidOtley UniversityofLancaster,UK ProfessorKimLangfield-Smith MonashUniversity,Australia ProfessorDavidOwen NottinghamUniversityBusinessSchool,UK ProfessorCarlosLarrinagaGonzalez UniversidaddeBurgos,Spain AssociateProfessorChrisPoullaos UniversityofSydney,Australia ProfessorStewartLawrence UniversityofWaikato,NewZealand ProfessorBobScapens UniversityofManchester,UK ProfessorCherylLehman HofstraUniversity,USA ProfessorTonyTinker CityUniversityofNewYork,USA ProfessorKenMcPhail UniversityofGlasgow,UK EDITORIALADVISORYBOARD ProfessorKennethMerchant UniversityofSouthernCalifornia,USA ProfessorCarolAdams LaTrobeUniversity,Australia ProfessorMarkusMilne UniversityofCanterbury,NewZealand ProfessorRichardBaker AdelphiUniversity,USA ProfessorJanMouritsen CopenhagenBusinessSchool,Denmark ProfessorJanBebbington StAndrewsUniversity,UK ProfessorChristopherNapier RoyalHolloway,UniversityofLondon,UK ProfessorNiamhBrennan UniversityCollegeDublin,Ireland ProfessorDeanNeu UniversityofCalgary,Canada ProfessorJohnBurns DundeeUniversity,UK ProfessorDerylNorthcott TheAucklandUniversityofTechnology,NewZealand ProfessorTyroneCarlin MacquarieUniversity,USA DrPaoloQuattrone TheUniversityofOxford,UK AssociateProfessorChungLaiHong NanyangTechnologicalUniversity,Singapore AssociateProfessorVaughanRadcliffe UniversityofWesternOntario,Canada ProfessorChristineCooper UniversityofStrathclyde,UK AssociateProfessorJohnRoberts UniversityofSydney,Australia ProfessorJohnCourtis HongKongCityUniversity,HongKong ProfessorChristineRyan QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,Australia ProfessorCraigDeegan RMITUniversity,Australia ProfessorPremSikka UniversityofEssex,UK ProfessorLisaEvans StirlingUniversity,UK ProfessorStuartTurley UniversityofManchester,UK ProfessorMahmoudEzzamel CardiffUniversity,UK ProfessorThomasTyson StJohnFisherCollege,USA ProfessorRichardFleischman UniversityofSouthFlorida,USA ProfessorStephenWalker CardiffUniversity,UK ProfessorWarwickFunnell TheUniversityofCanterbury,UK ProfessorPaulineWeetman Accounting,Auditing& UniversityofStrathclyde,UK ProfessorSonjaGallhofer AccountabilityJournal DundeeUniversity,UK ProfessorPaulWilliams Vol.21No.4,2008 NorthCarolinaStateUniversity,USA p.464 AssociateProfessorYvesGendron #EmeraldGroupPublishingLimited Universite´Laval,Canada ProfessorJoniYoung UniversityofNewMexico,USA 0951-3574 Thecurrentissueandfulltextarchiveofthisjournalisavailableat www.emeraldinsight.com/0951-3574.htm GUEST EDITORIAL Guest editorial Glass ceilings, glass cliffs or new worlds? 465 Revisiting gender and accounting Jane Broadbent University of Roehampton, London, UK, and Linda Kirkham Aberdeen Business School, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, UK Abstract Purpose–The purpose of this paper is to set out some contextual issues in relation to the achievementsofwomenaccountantsandacademics. Design/methodology/approach–Thisisadiscussionpaperthatusesacademicandprofessional experiencesasabasisfromwhichtodrawoutanagendaforfurtherstudy. Findings–Itisfoundthat,despitechangesoverthelast30years,thelivedexperienceofwomenin accounting and academia is evidence that their academic and professional opportunities are still constrained.Twopapersinthisspecialissueofferfeministapproachestoenrichstudyinthearea,and itisarguedthatgenderisanelementthatshouldbeembeddedinresearchinaccounting. Researchlimitations/implications–Thiseditorialisaselectivereviewandisnotintendedasa comprehensivereviewofresearchinthefield. Practical implications–The paper seeks to re-ignite more research in the field, using a richer rangeofapproaches. Originality/value–Thepapersetsanagendaforresearchandprovidesanargumentastowhythe agendaneedstobepursued. KeywordsAccountancy,Gender,Sexualdiscrimination PapertypeGeneralreview ThecatalystforthisspecialissueofAccountingAuditing&AccountabilityJournalwas ourreactiontoaconferencepaperusinggender-as-a-variable.Thispaperpurportedto showthattherewasnownogendergapinremuneration,butthatdifferenceswerethe resultofthefactthatwomentendedtoworkinsmallercompanieswherethesalaries formenandwomenalikewereless.Ourreactiontothiswasmixed.Thepaperraised morequestionsthanitanswered,notleastastowhywomenarelocatedpredominantly inthissectoroftheeconomy.Insteadofmovingforward,thispapersuggestedweare simply revisitingprevious concerns: TheGuestEditorswouldliketothankthejointeditorsforarrangingthereviewofthiseditorial Accounting,Auditing& andfortheirsupportindevelopingthisspecialissue.Thanksarealsoextendedtothereferees, AccountabilityJournal Vol.21No.4,2008 who have helped to strengthen the arguments presented, and to the Guest Editors, who have pp.465-473 workedsohardtoprovidetherange ofpaperspublished. Errors,ofcourse,remaintheGuest qEmeraldGroupPublishingLimited 0951-3574 Editors’. DOI10.1108/09513570810872888 AAAJ (1) Why had wenotmoved on? 21,4 (2) Whyhadtheground-breakingworkthathadappearedintheliteratureearlier, forexampleinthespecialissueofAccountingAuditing&AccountabilityJournal in 1992, not been built on andreplicated? (3) Why was the matter of gender still seen as a sub-area and not an issue to be integrated into our everyday work? 466 (4) Howwasitthataccountingresearcherswerestillabletoexaminefundamental questionsinthedisciplinewithoutatleastaskingthemselvesifandhowgender mightimpactuponboththequestionstheywereaskingandtheunderstandings they were seeking? (5) Howwasitthataccountingresearcherswerestillabletoexaminefundamental questionsinthedisciplinewithoutatleastaskingthemselvesifandhowgender mightimpactuponboththequestionstheywereaskingandtheunderstandings they were seeking? These lacunae in the literature and an emphasis in the work being undertaken on gender-as-a-variable, led us to pursue this further. This is the reason for this special issue of Accounting, Auditing& AccountabilityJournal. Oneaiminthiseditorialistoconnectourownexperiencestothebroaderresearch perspective in order to try to illustrate why we believe gender remains a substantive issuethatshouldbeofconcerntotheaccountingcommunitymoregenerally,andtothe accounting academic community more specifically. We also wish to show how our choiceofpapersillustratessomeofthequestionsandissuesnotedabove.Whilstthere arenosimpleanswerstothequestionsraised,webelievethatthepapersinthisspecial issuedoillustrateandexplorewaysinwhichwemightapproachresearchandtakethe agenda forward. InundertakingthisAccounting,Auditing&AccountabilityJournalspecialissuewe have reflected on our own experiences and have focussed on both practice and academia.Whilsttheseexperiencesareatonelevelanecdotal,theyneverthelessareour livedexperience.Itis,attimes,impossibletopreventtheseexperiencesinformingour workbecausetheyarekeytoourunderstandingoftheconceptofgender.Thisissofor everyone, but particularly for women with family responsibilities for whom the term “work-life-balance”isnotanacademicconceptbutaneverydayexperience.Inoffering ourownexperiencesweareseekingtoengageinfeministmethodologyasadvocated by Haynes (2008) in as far as it is “using women’s’ experience” (our own) as well as allowingus to “locate firmlyin theresearch both intellectually and reflexively”. Reflecting on our own experiences more generally, we should note our view that althoughtheWorldhas,forsomewomen,changedmuchoverthelast30years,ithas, insomeways,stayedthesame,andforthatreasontheissueofgenderremainsjustas relevant as it was then. Commentators might argue to the contrary that Western women have made enormous strides in gaining equality of opportunity. We are supposedlyinanageofpost-feminismwherefeministissues,accordingtosomecritics, have beensidelined ortrivialised as “political correctness”[1]. Feminism is much less visiblethanitwasinthe1970sandearly1980s.Thenfeminismwasallaroundusand a range of feminist writers published their work (Greer, 2006; Rossi, 1988; Spender, 1980) and activism such as the Greenham Women’s demonstrations over 20 years againstthesitingofshort-rangenuclearmissilesintheUK.Then,thecontributionof Guest editorial womentosocietyandthepotentialformorewasdiscussedanddebated.Weseemedto beatawatershed,butwherehasthisnowtakenus?Inthepost-feministtwenty-first century the popular media celebrate the “girl power”. Prominent women include the Spice Girls and the ubiquitous Wives and Girlfriends (WAGs) of rich sports stars. Their visibility arguably stems from a commodification of their individual bodies. They are, as such, celebrated as princesses of consumerism, using their power as 467 consumerstomouldthemselvesintotheimageoftheirchildhoodBarbieDolls.Inthe academic field Faludi (1993) draws together these themes in a scholarly fashion and reflects on the extent to which an anti-feminist backlash has been successful in sidelining feminism in everyday contexts. Nevertheless, it is counterproductive to deny the legacy of the 1970s women’s movement.Womennowsucceedinawiderangeofactivities,forexample,educational examinations and assessments. Indeed, girls now achieve better results than boys at many levels in disciplines in which they had not previously been well represented. However, this poses a number of problems for women who go far but still hit a metaphorical “glass ceiling” and thus experience injustices in their ultimate achievement levels. As young women now achieve more success than young men in areassuchasuniversityentrance(followingbetterexaminationsuccessatschool)the relevance of feminism can be questioned. What are the prospects for our daughters today and do they want what we wanted, and wanted for them? Are we simply indulginginnostalgiaforourownyouthbyaskingquestionsaboutthecontemporary placeofwomen?Clearly,inundertakingthisproject,wethinktheanswerisno.Weare notalone.Thedebateaboutfeminismpersistsandhasbeentheforerunnerofarange of academic work celebrating masculinities, sexualities and ethnicities. This signals the complexity of the field more generally and has ensured that the development of ideas continues. Weshouldneverthelessacknowledgetheimprovementsforwomenthathavebeen achievednotleastintheaccountingprofession.Theprogressmadebywomenentering the profession in the last 40 years must not be ignored. In 1970, when Jane was training, it was unusual to see women train to be accountants, not unknown, but unusual – she encountered only two other women in all the five years of part-time study as a trainee accountant. The assumption was that accountants were men. A trivial but telling demonstration of this was when Jane was taking an early set of professional examinations and the special cloakroom in which candidates were expectedtoleavetheircoatswasintheGentstoilets.Jane,theonlywomancandidate, hadtofindsomewhereelsetoleavehercoat!Intheearly1980s,whenLindawasbeing interviewedforatrainingcontractwithamedium-sizedfirmshewasaskedifshehad aboyfriendandhowhewouldfeelaboutherhavingtostudyatnightsandweekends. Unsurprisingly,themalecandidatesbeinginterviewedonthesamedaywerenotasked asimilarquestion.DuringLinda’straining,certainjobswereconsideredunsuitablefor awomantraineeduetotheattitudesand/orcultureoftheclients’premises,andthese were allocated exclusively to (white) males thereby limiting the range of work experience and opportunities for the few women in the office. Questions at job interviewsatthetimeexplicitlyexploredwithbothJaneandLindawhattheythought about enteringa maleprofession – something thatwouldnow leave anorganisation open to a charge of discrimination. It was the fact that Jane had been told about a AAAJ womanwhohadqualifiedthroughtheRegionalTrainingSchemethatmadeherchoose 21,4 totakeuptheofferofapostwiththeNHSratherthanatRollsRoyce.Nowadays,these issues may be implied rather than openly discussed – if they were, there is legal recoursefor thosewho wishto take up the possibility! Women have entered the profession despite these attitudes[2] and indeed small numbersofwomenhadbeenpioneersinaccountingpractice.AdaBourn,theauntof 468 Sir John Bourn, our recently retired UK Comptroller and Auditor General, may have inspired her nephew to his profession. In 1916 she successfully completed the examinationsoftheLondonSocietyofAccountants(theprecursortotheAssociationof CharteredCertifiedAccountants(ACCA))attheageof18years,althoughshecouldnot take up membership until she was 21 (Bourn, 1998). This situation is one that has changed considerably. Historic trend figures obtained from the ACCA, for example, show numbers of women embers remained small until the early 1970s when they begantoincreasesignificantly.Thereasonforthisisatopicworthyofdetailedstudy. Equal numbers of women and men now enter the ACCA as students and the figures show that 40 per cent of new entrants are now women with 22 per cent members overall being women. ThissametrendisapparentinalltheUKprofessionalbodiesandtheProfessional Oversight Board in Accounting (POBA) report on key facts and trends in the accountancy profession reports that in total 30 per cent of members of Accountancy Professional Bodies are nowwomen (POBA, 2007). The figures show in detail some variation in the differentbodies as follows: . Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (40 per cent); . CharteredInstitute of ManagementAccountants (28percent); . CharteredInstitute of Public Finance and Accounting (27 per cent); . Institute of CharteredAccountants in England and Wales (23per cent); . Institute of CharteredAccountant in Ireland (31 percent); and . Institute of CharteredAccountants of Scotland (26 per cent). Information obtained from some of these bodies also demonstrates the percentage of women students is growing and this hasimplicationsforfuturemembership: . Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (50 per cent); . CharteredInstitute of ManagementAccountants (45percent); . Institute of CharteredAccountants in England and Wales (40per cent); and . Institute of CharteredAccountants of Scotland (46 per cent). The differences between the different professional bodies is also worthy of more detailedstudy. A general argument – highlighting the trickle down effect – suggests that the changing demographics of the profession provide equality for women in due course. The“BigFour”espouseacommitmenttogenderdiversityandthereissomeevidence theyareseekingtoaddresstheissue.PWChasaGenderAdvisoryCouncil,Deloittes haveaWomen’sInitiativeintheUS(althoughwecouldnotfindtheequivalentinthe UK),Ernst&Youngnotetheircommitmenttodiversitycelebratingtheirachievements inarangeofbenchmarkawards(OpportunityNow’sGenderDiversitybenchmarkas well as Stonewall’s listings), the KPMG Annual Report 2007 notes the firm’s Guest editorial commitmenttodiversityandalsohighlightsthewomen’sdiversityprogramme,which isseenasapracticalsolutiontotheproblemthatthe13percentproportionofwomen partners remains static. However, there is evidence of a gap between women’s experiences and the formal efforts of firms to create equality of opportunity. There is as yet no indication that a trickle-down effect will in time ensure more women achieve partnerships and other 469 senior positions. The work of Dambrin and Lambert (2008) provides a qualitative account of the difficulties of managing career progression, particularly in relation to motherhood, an account that echoes the extensive work of Haynes in her PhD thesis (Haynes, 2005). Despite the gains in the general approach to women forged through feminist lobbying and consequent diversity legislation, evidence from the UK (Gammie, 2007) shows that it still remains difficult for women to progress to partnerships and the most senior positions in the profession. Moreover, work in the moregeneralarenaofpublicservicesshowsthatwhilstsomewomenareabletobreak through the glass ceiling there is some evidence that they simply make it to a glass cliff.Thatistosaythatwhentheyreachthetoptheyaremorelikelytolosetheirjobs when things go wrong, than is the case for their male colleagues(Nutley, 2005). Insummary,ourargumentisthatdespitesomesignificantgainsthereremainsaset ofissuestoaddressinrelationtowomen’sprogressionintheiraccountingcareers.In 1970intheUKthereissomeevidenceofachange.In1970intheUKaccountancywas nottheGraduateentryprofessionthatitistodayandsincethenmanyaspectsofthe profession and associated training have changed. Increasing growth in women’s membershipoftheprofessionwasonlyone,albeitsignificant,elementofchange.The professionatthatstagewasatanoteworthypointinitscontinuingattemptstoensure professionalclosure (WalkerandShackleton,1998), historically this has always been an element with implications for women entrants. However, whilst studies of the emergenceoftheprofessionhavesoughttoexploretheeffectofgenderonprofessional closure (Roberts, 1992)and the early foundations of professional formation (Kirkham, 1993) and whilst other scholars have considered the experience of contemporary women(Gammie,2007;Haynes,2005),littlehasyetbeendonetoexploretherichdetail ofthefeminisationoftheprofessionoverthepast40yearswherethegrowthinwomen membershiphasrisenexponentially.Gatheringoralhistoriesofthosewhohavelived through this period remains an intriguing possibility. This suggests an interesting PhD project, as does the consideration of the differential membership profiles of the variousprofessional accountancy bodies. International comparisons would also be of interest. Returningtothethemeofexploringourownexperiences,weturnnexttoourown currentmilieu,theacademicworld.Ifweseeeducationasanimportantdriverofsocial change it should be enlightened in its practices. How well is it progressing in its supportofwomen?AcountofwomenVice-ChancellorsintheUKshowstheyaccount forabout9-10percentofthepopulationdependingonhowthecountoftheinstitutions is made[3]. This is in line with international comparators. The Association of Commonwealth Universities has taken some care to track women’s achievements (Singh, 2002) and, for those whose gender was reported, showed that whilst 22.6 per centofthoseemployedatSeniorLecturerandabovewerewomen,atthelevelofVice ChancellorsandPresidentswomenwereonly9percentofthetotalpopulation.In2006,
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