AC power systems

564 Pages·1991·22.623 MB·English

by  Whitaker, Jerry C

Table of Contents
Chapter 1:Power Distribution and Control
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Defining Terms
1.1.2 Power Electronics
1.2 ACCircuitAnalysis
1.2.1 Power RelationshipinACCircuits
1.2.2 ComplexNumbers
1.2.3 Phasors
1.2.4 Per UnitSystem
1.3 ElementsoftheAC PowerSystem
1.4 Power Transformers
1.4.1 Basic Principles
1.4.2 Counter-Electromotive Force
1.4.3 Full Load PercentImpedance
1.4.4 DesignConsiderations
1.4.5 TheIdealTransformer
1.4.6 ApplicationConsiderations
1.5 PowerGeneration
1.5.1 FundamentalConcepts
1.5.1.1 ControlTechniques
1.5.2 PowerGeneratingSystems
1.5.2.1 FossilFuelPower Plants
1.5.2.2 NuclearPowerPlants
1.5.2.3 HydroelectricPower Plants
1.6 Capacitors
1.7 Transmission Circuits
1.7.1 TypesofConductors
1.7.1.1 OverheadCables
1.7.1.2 UndergroundCables
1.7.1.3 Skin Effect
1.7.2 DielectricsandInsulators
1.7.2.1 InsulatingLiquids
1.7.2.2 InsulatingSolids
1.7.3 ControlandSwitching Systems
1.7.3.1 FaultProtectionDevices
1.7.3.2 LightningArrester
1.8 UtilityACPowerSystem
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1.8.1 PowerDistribution
1.8.2 DistributionSubstations
1.8.2.1 BreakerSchemes
1.8.3 VoltageAnalysis
1.8.4 High-VoltageDC Transmission
1.8.4.1 EconomicComparison ofACandDCTransmission
1.8.4.2 DCCircuitBreakers
1.9 PowerFactor
1.9.1 PFCorrectionTechniques
1.9.1.1 On-SitePowerFactorCorrection
1.9.1.2 ShuntReactors
1.9.1.3 UnwantedResonanceConditions
1.9.1.4 SeriesCapacitorCompensation
1.9.1.5 Static CompensationDevices
1.10UtilityCompanyInterfacing
1.10.1 Phase-to-PhaseBalance
1.10.2 MeasuringACPower
1.10.2.1 Digital MeasurementTechniques
1.11References
1.12Bibliography
Chapter 2:The Origins of ACLineDisturbances
2.1 Introduction
2.2 NaturallyOccurring Disturbances
2.2.1 SourcesofAtmospheric Energy
2.2.2 CharacteristicsofLightning
2.2.2.1 Cloud-to-CloudActivity
2.2.3 LightningProtection
2.2.3.1 ProtectionArea
2.2.4 Electrostatic Discharge
2.2.4.1 Triboelectric Effect
2.2.5 EMPRadiation
2.2.6 CouplingTransientEnergy
2.3 Equipment-CausedTransientDisturbances
2.3.1 UtilitySystemFaults
2.3.2 SwitchContactArcing
2.3.3 Telephone SystemTransients
2.3.4 Nonlinear LoadsandHarmonic Energy
2.3.4.1 HarmonicSources
2.3.5 CarrierStorage
2.3.6 Transient-GeneratedNoise
2.3.6.1 ESDNoise
2.3.6.2 ContactArcing
© 1999 CRC Press LLC
2.3.6.3 SCR Switching
2.4 PowerDisturbanceClassifications
2.4.1 StandardsofMeasurement
2.5 AssessingtheThreat
2.5.1 Fundamental Measurement Techniques
2.5.1.1 Root-Mean-Square
2.5.1.2 Average-ResponseMeasurement
2.5.1.3 Peak-Response Measurement
2.5.1.4 Meter Accuracy
2.5.2 Digital MeasurementInstruments
2.5.3 DigitalSignalConversion
2.5.3.1 TheA/DConversion Process
2.5.4 Digital MonitorFeatures
2.5.4.1 CapturingTransientWaveforms
2.5.4.2 Casein Point
2.6 ReliabilityConsiderations
2.7 References
2.8 Bibliography
Chapter 3:The Effectsof Transient Disturbances
3.1 Introduction
3.2 SemiconductorFailure Modes
3.2.1 DeviceRuggedness
3.2.2 ForwardBiasSafeOperatingArea
3.2.3 Reverse BiasSafe Operating Area
3.2.4 Power-HandlingCapability
3.2.5 SemiconductorDerating
3.2.6 Failure Mechanisms
3.2.6.1 AvalancheBreakdown
3.2.6.2 AlphaMultiplication
3.2.6.3 Punch-Through
3.2.6.4 ThermalRunaway
3.2.6.5 BreakdownEffects
3.2.6.6 Avalanche-RelatedFailure
3.2.6.7 ThermalRunaway
3.2.6.8 ThermalSecondBreakdown
3.2.6.9 MetallizationFailure
3.2.6.10 PolarityReversal
3.3 MOSFET Devices
3.3.1 Safe Operating Area
3.3.2 MOSFETFailure Modes
3.4 ThyristorComponents
3.4.1 Failure Modes
© 1999 CRC Press LLC
3.4.2 ApplicationConsiderations
3.5 ESD Failure Modes
3.5.1 Failure Mechanisms
3.5.1.1 LatentFailures
3.5.1.2 Casein Point
3.6 SemiconductorDevelopment
3.6.1 FailureAnalysis
3.6.2 ChipProtection
3.7 EffectsofArcing
3.7.1 InsulationBreakdown
3.8 References
3.9 Bibliography
Chapter 4:PowerSystem Components
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Power-SupplyComponents
4.2 PowerRectifiers
4.2.1 OperatingRectifiersinSeries
4.2.2 OperatingRectifiersinParallel
4.2.3 Silicon AvalancheRectifiers
4.2.4 Single-PhaseRectifierConfigurations
4.2.4.1 Half-WaveRectifier
4.2.4.2 Full-WaveRectifier
4.2.4.3 BridgeRectifier
4.2.4.4 VoltageMultiplier
4.2.5 PolyphaseRectifierCircuits
4.2.6 PowerSupplyFilterCircuits
4.2.6.1 InductiveInputFilter
4.2.6.2 CapacitiveInputFilter
4.3 Power Electronics
4.3.1 ThyristorDevices
4.3.2 ThyristorServoSystems
4.3.2.1 InductiveLoads
4.3.2.2 Applications
4.3.2.3 TriggeringCircuits
4.3.2.4 Control Flexibility
4.3.3 Gate Turn-Off Thyristor
4.3.4 Reverse-Conducting Thyristor
4.3.5 Asymmetrical Silicon-ControlledRectifier
4.3.6 Fusing
4.3.7 Power Transistors
4.3.8 Power MOSFET
4.3.8.1 Rugged MOSFET
© 1999 CRC Press LLC
4.3.9 Insulated-GateBipolarTransistor
4.3.10 MOS-Controlled Thyristor
4.4 TransformerFailure Modes
4.4.1 ThermalConsiderations
4.4.1.1 Life ExpectancyandTemperature
4.4.2 VoltageConsiderations
4.4.3 MechanicalConsiderations
4.4.3.1 Dry-TypeandLiquid-FilledTransformers
4.4.3.2 InsulationMaterials
4.4.3.3 InsulatingLiquids
4.4.3.4 Cooling
4.5 CapacitorFailureModes
4.5.1 ElectrolyticCapacitors
4.5.1.1 MechanicalFailure
4.5.1.2 TemperatureCycling
4.5.1.3 ElectrolyteFailures
4.5.2 Capacitor LifeSpan
4.5.3 TantalumCapacitors
4.6 Fault Protectors
4.6.1 Fuses
4.6.2 CircuitBreakers
4.6.3 SemiconductorFuses
4.6.4 ApplicationConsiderations
4.6.4.1 TransientCurrents
4.6.4.2 Delay-Trip Considerations
4.7 References
4.8 Bibliography
Chapter 5:PowerSystem Protection Alternatives
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 TheKey ToleranceEnvelope
5.1.2 AssessingtheLightningHazard
5.1.3 FIPSPublication94
5.1.4 TransientProtectionAlternatives
5.1.4.1 SpecifyingSystem-ProtectionHardware
5.2 Motor-GeneratorSet
5.2.1 SystemConfiguration
5.2.2 Motor-DesignConsiderations
5.2.2.1 Single-Shaft Systems
5.2.2.2 FlywheelConsiderations
5.2.3 MaintenanceConsiderations
5.2.4 Motor-GeneratorUPS
5.2.4.1 KineticBattery Storage System
© 1999 CRC Press LLC
5.3 UninterruptiblePowerSystems
5.3.1 UPSConfiguration
5.3.2 Power-ConversionMethods
5.3.2.1 FerroresonantInverter
5.3.2.2 DeltaMagneticInverter
5.3.2.3 Inverter-Fed L/CTank
5.3.2.4 Quasi-SquareWaveInverter
5.3.2.5 StepWaveInverter
5.3.2.6 Pulse-WidthmodulationInverter
5.3.2.7 PhaseModulationInverter
5.3.3 RedundantOperation
5.3.4 Output Transfer Switch
5.3.5 BatterySupply
5.4 DedicatedProtectionSystems
5.4.1 FerroresonantTransformer
5.4.1.1 Magnetic-Coupling-ControlledVoltageRegulator
5.4.2 Isolation Transformer
5.4.3 Tap-ChangingRegulator
5.4.3.1 Variable RatioRegulator
5.4.4 VariableVoltageTransformer
5.4.4.1 Brush Type
5.4.4.2 InductionType
5.4.5 Line Conditioner
5.4.5.1 HybridTransientSuppressor
5.4.6 ActivePowerLineConditioner
5.4.6.1 ApplicationConsiderations
5.5 References
5.6 Bibliography
Chapter 6: FacilityProtection Methods
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 FilterDevices
6.1.2 Crowbar Devices
6.1.2.1 CharacteristicsofArcs
6.1.3 Voltage-ClampingDevices
6.1.3.1 ZenerComponents
6.1.3.2 HybridSuppressionCircuits
6.1.4 SelectingProtectionComponents
6.1.5 Performance Testing
6.2 FacilityProtection
6.2.1 FacilityWiring
6.2.2 UtilityService Entrance
6.3 Power-System Protection
© 1999 CRC Press LLC
6.3.1 Staging
6.3.2 DesignCautions
6.3.2.1 Specifications
6.3.3 Single-Phasing
6.4 Circuit-LevelApplications
6.4.1 ProtectingLow-Voltage Supplies
6.4.2 ProtectingHigh-VoltageSupplies
6.4.3 ProtectionforUngroundedTowers
6.4.4 ProtectingLogicCircuits
6.4.5 ProtectingTelco Lines
6.4.6 InductiveLoad Switching
6.4.7 DeviceApplicationCautions
6.4.8 SurgeSuppressor Selection
6.5 References
6.6 Bibliography
Chapter 7:Facility Grounding
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Terms andCodes
7.1.1.1 TheNeedforGrounding
7.1.1.2 EquipmentGrounding
7.1.1.3 SystemGrounding
7.1.1.4 TheGroundingElectrode
7.1.1.5 EarthElectrode
7.2 Establishingan EarthGround
7.2.1 GroundingInterface
7.2.1.1 Ground ElectrodeTesting
7.2.2 ChemicalGroundRods
7.2.3 UferGroundSystem
7.2.4 BondingGround-System Elements
7.2.5 Exothermic Bonding
7.2.6 Ground-System Inductance
7.2.7 GroundingTower Elements
7.2.8 Ground-WireDressing
7.2.9 FacilityGroundInterconnection
7.2.9.1 PersonnelProtection
7.2.10 GroundingonBareRock
7.2.10.1 Rock-BasedRadial Elements
7.3 Transmission-SystemGrounding
7.3.1 Transmission Line
7.3.1.1 CableConsiderations
7.3.2 SatelliteAntennaGrounding
7.4 DesigningaBuildingGroundSystem
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7.4.1 BulkheadPanel
7.4.1.1 BulkheadPanel
7.4.2 LightningProtectors
7.4.2.1 TypicalInstallation
7.4.3 ChecklistforProperGrounding
7.5 ACSystemGroundingPractices
7.5.1 BuildingCodes
7.5.2 Single-PointGround
7.5.3 IsolatedGrounding
7.5.4 SeparatelyDerivedSystems
7.5.5 GroundingTerminology
7.5.6 FacilityGroundSystem
7.5.6.1 GroundingConductorSize
7.5.6.2 High-FrequencyEffects
7.5.7 Power-CenterGrounding
7.5.7.1 IsolationTransformers
7.5.8 GroundingEquipmentRacks
7.6 GroundingSignal-CarryingCables
7.6.1 AnalyzingNoiseCurrents
7.6.2 TypesofNoise
7.6.3 NoiseControl
7.6.4 Patch-BayGrounding
7.6.5 Input/OutputCircuits
7.6.6 CableRouting
7.6.7 OvercomingGround-SystemProblems
7.7 References
7.8 Bibliography
Chapter 8:Standby PowerSystems
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 BlackoutEffects
8.2 StandbyPowerOptions
8.2.1 Peak PowerShaving
8.2.2 AdvancedSystemProtection
8.2.3 Choosing a Generator
8.2.3.1 GeneratorTypes
8.2.4 UPSSystems
8.2.5 StandbyPower-SystemNoise
8.2.6 Batteries
8.2.6.1 Terms
8.2.6.2 Sealed Lead-AcidBattery
8.3 Fault Tolerance asa DesignObjective
8.3.1 CriticalSystemBus
© 1999 CRC Press LLC