A LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF LIVING Measuring behaviour and the impact of dwelling rather than ...

388 Pages·2017·10.05 MB·English

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A LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF LIVING
Measuring behaviour and the impact of dwelling rather than the dwelling alone

BY

NILESH BAKSHI

A thesis
submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington
in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

Victoria University of Wellington
2017
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Preface

This thesis is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Victoria University of
Wellington. The basis of this thesis is an assessment of how human behaviour and choices we
make in our households affect total impact. The research described herein was conducted under
the supervision of Professor R. J. D. Vale and Professor B. A. Vale in the School of
Architecture and Design, Victoria University of Wellington, between May 2013 and May 2017.
My research question was formulated together with my supervisors. The research was difficult,
but conducting extensive investigation has allowed me to answer the question that we
identified. Certainly, I would have never reached the point of finishing my thesis without the
help and support of others. These four years have been a challenging trip, with both ups and
downs. Fortunately, I was not alone on this road but accompanied by experts, always willing
to coach, help, and motivate me. For this, I would like to kindly thank them.
My most important coach throughout all these years was Professor Robert Vale: “You are full
of knowledge and ideas, you are eager to share them and were always ready to find time for
me disregarding your busy schedule. Thank you so much for always being there for me, both
in times when the research was going to plan, but also in stressful periods, for your
understanding and emotional support during my PhD dips”. Furthermore, I would like to thank
Professor M. R. Donn for his continuous support. Thank you for always taking the time to
discuss problems with me: “Throughout my journey, you introduced me to the thesis writing
process, and guided me through the world of science and teaching”. I would also like to thank
my colleagues; my long-time friend Alexis, for many useful discussions, comments and
suggestions; and James Sullivan. “Our time discussing, debating and refining research methods
and techniques has been an invaluable experience, thank you for always being an impartial
listener and for all your suggestions”.
I owe appreciation to the Administrative staff of the School, in particular to Selena Shaw, who
has been a great support during this period.
Thank you and love to my father Suresh and my mother Neelam, for their encouragement and
support; to my brother Sunil; and my sister Shabeena. These four people, my family, deserve
a special word of appreciation for their moral support, patience and love. My parents deserve
a particular note of thanks: your wise counsel and kind words have, as always, served me well.
I hope you enjoy your reading.
Nilesh Bakshi
Wellington, New Zealand, May 1, 2017

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Abstract

This research addresses the need for a more sustainable way of living by arguing that the
current approach to green architecture, limited by the current criteria, needs to be refined in
response to the needs of the finite world. In comparison with earlier ways of living, modern
society has a large dependence on technology. This dependence only further reinforces the
overall detrimental environmental impacts of human behaviour. The original contribution to
knowledge this thesis contributes is to establish the effect of behaviour on the total impact of a
dwelling by measuring behaviour in the act of dwelling in New Zealand households.
The thesis maps human behaviour; first looking at global practices and raw materials
extraction: and second New Zealand's interaction with the global market. The inherent
relationship between manufacturing nations and countries like New Zealand entails an indirect
link revealing how international policies can be influenced by the average New Zealand
household.
By means of an in-depth life cycle assessment, approximately 400 households are examined to
identify the embodied energy in the act of dwelling, including ownership of the various
household items that use finite raw materials in both operation and manufacture. This research
identifies the existence of crucial "Hidden Emissions" that are currently not considered in
national and international CO2 accounting methods. This research also identifies the links
between appliance ownership, its usage and how these vary for different types of appliances.
The outcome of this research posits, first, a theoretical framework for establishing impact as a
result of behaviour, dubbed the “Effect on Operation” formulae, making it possible to measure
behaviour in total emissions and how this impacts climate change. Second, this work identifies
key changes in both the energy generation sector and in household behaviour to meet current
emissions reduction targets. The hypothetical reduction scenarios presented in this thesis
identify the possibility of a prospective change in the relative importance of embodied energy
when compared to the impact of operational energy. This reveals a possible future in which
embodied energy may well account for over sixty per cent of total emissions associated with
household behaviour, suggesting several avenues for further research.
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Table of Contents

Information page .................................................................................................................... i
Preface…………………………………………………………………………. .................... iii
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………... .................. v
Table of contents… ............................................................................................................. vii
List of figures… ................................................................................................................. xiii
List of tables…................................................................................................................... xix
List of abbreviations .......................................................................................................... xxv
Chapter summaries ........................................................................................................... xxix
Chapter One: Introduction and Contextual research
1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Contextual research in New Zealand .............................................................................. 3
1.3 A question of behaviour ................................................................................................. 5
1.4 Aim of the research ........................................................................................................ 8
1.5 Understanding the current criteria ................................................................................... 8
1.6 Defining sustainability ................................................................................................... 9
1.7 Sustainability in practice today ..................................................................................... 11
1.8 Current criteria and labelling systems ........................................................................... 13
1.8.1 LEED and LEED – ND ....................................................................................... 14
1.8.2 BREEAM ............................................................................................................ 15
1.9 The application of these criteria specific to New Zealand ............................................. 16
1.10 Problems of the current criteria .................................................................................... 16
1.11 Knowledge gap ........................................................................................................... 18
1.12 Research question........................................................................................................ 19
1.13 Hypothesis .................................................................................................................. 20
Chapter Two: Consumer Behaviour: Global Scale Interaction
2.1 The “where” of manufacture and operation................................................................... 23
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2.2 Worldwide material consumption ................................................................................. 24
2.2.1 Consumer societies: From the 1950s to today ...................................................... 24
2.2.2 Developed and developing nations ....................................................................... 26
2.2.3 Global materials economy and international legislation........................................ 29
2.3 The New Zealand scale ................................................................................................ 31
2.3.1 How does the world affect New Zealand? ............................................................ 31
2.3.2 Goods-producing industries ................................................................................. 32
2.3.3 Primary industries ................................................................................................ 33
2.4 Target emissions .......................................................................................................... 34
2.5 Increasing emissions: Where to measure behaviour? .................................................... 36
2.6 Summary of consumer behaviour: Global scale interaction ........................................... 37
2.7 The next step: Chapter three ......................................................................................... 38
Chapter Three: Consumer Behaviour: National Scale Consumption
3.1 Introduction: Understanding what is already measured ................................................. 39
3.2 Electricity and its generation ........................................................................................ 41
3.3 Electricity usage trends................................................................................................. 46
3.4 Jevons’ Paradox ........................................................................................................... 50
3.5 Technology-only solutions to meet targets: Going solely renewable ............................. 52
3.6 HEEP, observing New Zealand household behaviour ................................................... 57
3.7 Theorized “hidden emissions” ...................................................................................... 64
3.8 Summary of consumer behaviour: National scale consumption..................................... 66
3.9 The next step: Chapter four .......................................................................................... 69
Chapter Four: Research Methodology and analytical framework
4.1 Methodology and analytical framework: Introduction ................................................... 71
4.2 What is a LCA and what does the process of a LCA involve? ....................................... 73
4.2.1 Life-cycle assessment overview ........................................................................... 74
4.2.2 Standards for “green” building design .................................................................. 76
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4.2.3 International standards ......................................................................................... 77
4.3 What types of data are needed? .................................................................................... 79
4.3.1 Life Cycle Inventories (LCI) ................................................................................ 80
4.3.2 Usage and energy data ......................................................................................... 81
4.3.3Product Specific Rules (PSRs) .............................................................................. 81
4.4 Procurement of raw data ............................................................................................... 81
4.5 Key obstacles faced in the procurement of raw data ...................................................... 83
4.6 The actual process followed ......................................................................................... 84
4.6.1 Tear down study .................................................................................................. 86
4.6.2 Open source repositories ...................................................................................... 86
4.6.3 Aggregated data – using across unit figures ......................................................... 86
4.6.4 PSRs .................................................................................................................... 87
4.7 Analytical Framework: “Effect on Operation” formulae ............................................... 87
4.7.1 Proportional change ............................................................................................. 89
4.7.2 Unchanged .......................................................................................................... 90
4.7.3 Unknown increase ............................................................................................... 91
4.8 The definition of an appliance ...................................................................................... 92
4.9 Material coefficients ..................................................................................................... 94
4.10 CO2 Accounting methodology ..................................................................................... 95
Chapter Five: Life Cycle Inventories
5.1 Compiling life cycle inventories ................................................................................... 97
5.2 Appliance lifespans and nominal weights ..................................................................... 98
5.3 Appliance categories .................................................................................................. 104
5.4 Quality assurance tear down analysis with open source repositories ........................... 106
5.5 General, small portable appliances ............................................................................. 106
5.6 Entertainment appliances ............................................................................................ 112
5.7 Washing and drying appliances .................................................................................. 115
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5.8 Kitchen and cooking appliances ................................................................................. 119
5.9 Space heating appliances ............................................................................................ 137
5.10 Lighting..................................................................................................................... 145
5.11 Garage and garden appliances.................................................................................... 147
5.12 General assumptions .................................................................................................. 151
5.13 Summary ................................................................................................................... 152
5.14 The next step: Chapter six ......................................................................................... 152
Chapter Six: Appliance Data Studies
6.1 Operational energy ..................................................................................................... 153
6.2 Wattage and usage...................................................................................................... 154
6.3 Appliance categories .................................................................................................. 157
6.4 Appliances with wattage that varies across usage ....................................................... 158
6.5 General, small portable appliances ............................................................................. 158
6.6 Entertainment appliances ............................................................................................ 161
6.7 Washing and drying appliances .................................................................................. 165
6.8 Kitchen and cooking appliances ................................................................................. 169
6.9 Space heating appliances ............................................................................................ 180
6.10 Gas appliances ........................................................................................................... 183
6.11 Lighting..................................................................................................................... 185
6.12 Garage and garden appliances.................................................................................... 187
6.13 Summary ................................................................................................................... 189
6.14 The next step: Chapter seven ..................................................................................... 192
Chapter Seven: Research Results and Discussion
7.1 Key results of the investigation into household behaviour .......................................... 193
7.2 Significance of appliance numbers ............................................................................. 194
7.3 Appliance impact v house impact ............................................................................... 200
7.4 CO2 emissions of appliance ownership and operation ................................................. 209
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