Table Of Content

A GRAMMAR OF DHIMAL BY JOHNT.KING CONTENTS LISTOFFIGURES…………………………………………………………………….....vi ABBREVIATIONSANDCONVENTIONS.………………………………………...…….....xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………..………………………………………...……….xv CHAPTERONE:INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................1 1.1Goals..............................................................................................................1 1.2Dhimal...........................................................................................................1 1.3TheDhimalenvironment...............................................................................5 1.4Materialculture..............................................................................................6 1.5Cosmology...................................................................................................10 1.6Socioculture.................................................................................................11 1.7Politicalhistory............................................................................................14 1.8Linguisticandculturalpreservation.............................................................16 CHAPTERTWO:PHONOLOGY........................................................................................27 2.1Consonants...................................................................................................27 2.1.1PhoneticdescriptionofDhimalphonemesandallophones.......................27 2.1.2Distinctivenessofconsonantphonemes....................................................31 2.2Vowels.........................................................................................................36 2.2.1PhoneticdescriptionofDhimalvowelphonemes.....................................37 2.2.2Distinctivenessofvowelphonemes..........................................................38 2.3Segmentalphonology...................................................................................41 2.3.1Assimilationanddissimilation..................................................................42 2.5Vowelharmony............................................................................................45 2.6Variation......................................................................................................47 2.7Writingsystem.............................................................................................48 CHAPTERTHREE:NOMINALMORPHOLOGY....................................................................49 3.1Nouns...........................................................................................................49 3.1.1Nominalisation..........................................................................................50 3.1.2Adjectives.................................................................................................52 3.1.3Gender.......................................................................................................55 3.2Number........................................................................................................56 3.2.1Plural.........................................................................................................56 3.2.2Numerals...................................................................................................60 3.2.3Classifiersandmeasurewords..................................................................62 3.3Pronominals.................................................................................................65 3.3.1Personalpronouns.....................................................................................65 3.3.2Possessivepronouns..................................................................................67 3.3.3Demonstrative,interrogativeandindefinitepronouns..............................67 3.4Reflexive......................................................................................................72 3.5Postpositionsandcasemarking....................................................................74 3.5.1Genitive.....................................................................................................74 3.5.2Locative.....................................................................................................77 vi CONTENTS 3.5.3Instrumental...............................................................................................80 3.5.4Elative........................................................................................................82 3.5.5Circumlocative...........................................................................................84 3.5.6Dative........................................................................................................86 3.5.7Comitative.................................................................................................93 3.5.8Allative......................................................................................................94 3.5.9Individuatingpostposition.........................................................................95 3.6Comparative..................................................................................................97 CHAPTERFOUR:VERBALMORPHOLOGY......................................................................101 4.1Morphosyntacticprocesses.........................................................................101 4.1.1Affixation.................................................................................................102 4.1.2Reduplication...........................................................................................102 4.2Verbstemsandtheinfinitive......................................................................104 4.2.1Verbstems...............................................................................................104 4.2.2Theinfinitive...........................................................................................105 4.3Copulasandexistentials..............................................................................106 4.3.1Existential................................................................................................106 4.3.2NegativeExistential.................................................................................108 4.3.3Equationals..............................................................................................109 4.4Negation......................................................................................................111 4.4.1Prefixalnegation......................................................................................111 4.4.2Absolutenegative....................................................................................112 4.5Manneradverbs..........................................................................................113 4.6Participantreferencemarking.....................................................................119 4.6.1Firstpersonsingular.................................................................................119 4.6.2Secondpersonsingular............................................................................121 4.6.3Thirdperson.............................................................................................122 4.6.4Firstpersondual......................................................................................122 4.6.5Secondpersondual..................................................................................124 4.6.6Firstpersonplural....................................................................................125 4.6.7Secondpersonplural................................................................................125 4.6.8Collective.................................................................................................127 4.6.9Reciprocal................................................................................................128 4.6.10Imperious1s→2.....................................................................................129 4.6.11Imperious3s→2.....................................................................................130 4.6.12Affinalkinregister.................................................................................131 4.7Tenseandaspect.........................................................................................135 4.7.1Tense........................................................................................................135 4.7.2Aspect......................................................................................................146 4.7.3Periphrasticresultatives...........................................................................166 4.8Deicticmotion............................................................................................173 4.8.1Distal........................................................................................................174 4.8.2Intentive...................................................................................................177 4.8.3Indeterminatemotion...............................................................................180 4.8.4Relinquitive.............................................................................................182 4.8.5 Venitive..................................................................................................185 4.9Valency.......................................................................................................188 4.9.1Middle......................................................................................................188 CONTENTS vii 4.9.2Passive....................................................................................................195 4.9.3Causative.................................................................................................197 4.9.4Indirectcausative....................................................................................200 4.9.5Periphrasticcausative..............................................................................201 4.9.6Directive..................................................................................................202 4.10Directives.................................................................................................204 4.10.1Optative.................................................................................................204 4.10.2Adhortatives..........................................................................................206 4.10.3Imperatives............................................................................................210 CHAPTERFIVE:THESENTENCE...................................................................................221 5.1Non-finiteclauses......................................................................................221 5.1.1Sequential................................................................................................221 5.1.2Co-temporal............................................................................................226 5.1.3Concessive..............................................................................................228 5.1.4Conditional..............................................................................................230 5.1.5 Negativeconditional..............................................................................235 5.1.6Purposive.................................................................................................238 5.1.7Implicational...........................................................................................241 5.2Epistemic,mirativeandattitudinalmorphemes.........................................244 5.2.1Deductive................................................................................................245 5.2.2Dubitative................................................................................................248 5.2.3Mirative...................................................................................................252 5.2.4Apparentive.............................................................................................255 5.2.5Exclamative.............................................................................................258 5.3Informationstructure..................................................................................259 5.3.1Topic.......................................................................................................259 5.3.2Assertivefocus........................................................................................265 5.3.3Argumentandsentencefocus..................................................................269 5.3.4Presuppositional......................................................................................273 5.3.5Referentialparticle..................................................................................276 5.3.6Assertive.................................................................................................279 5.3.7Contrastive..............................................................................................281 5.4Sentencestructure......................................................................................283 5.4.1Relativeclauses.......................................................................................283 5.4.2Reportedspeechandcomplementation...................................................286 5.4.3Interrogatives..........................................................................................288 5.4.4Adhortativetag........................................................................................290 5.4.5Tagquestions..........................................................................................291 5.4.6Particleki................................................................................................292 TEXTONE:COURTING................................................................................................295 TEXTTWO:CATCHINGRATS.......................................................................................323 TEXTTHREE:HUNTINGMONITORLIZARDS..................................................................335 TEXTFOUR:THELOWLANDSTRONGMAN...................................................................349 TEXTFIVE:THETIGERANDTHEYOGI.........................................................................365 viii CONTENTS TEXTSIX:THESPLITTINGOFTHEBANANALEAF..........................................................397 TEXTSEVEN:THEJACKALANDTHEBEAR....................................................................431 TEXTEIGHT:THESNAKEHUSBAND..............................................................................443 TEXTNINE:THEBOYANDTHEKING’SDAUGHTER.......................................................453 TEXTTEN:THEEVILSTEPMOTHER...............................................................................467 TEXTELEVEN:WHERECHICKENSCOMEFROM.............................................................475 TEXTTWELVE:SHITEATER.........................................................................................477 TEXTTHIRTEEN:THESICKONE...................................................................................479 TEXTFOURTEEN:MAKINGRICEBEER..........................................................................481 TEXTFIFTEEN:WEDDINGCEREMONY..........................................................................483 TEXTSIXTEEN:ASARECELEBRATION..........................................................................485 TEXTSEVENTEEN:LATERCLANWORSHIPDURINGPARBA............................................489 RIDDLES.....................................................................................................................491 SONGS........................................................................................................................493 INFLEXIONALPARADIGMS..........................................................................................499 KINSHIPTERMS...........................................................................................................503 DHIMAL-ENGLISHGLOSSARY......................................................................................505 BIBLIOGRAPHY...........................................................................................................649 LISTOFFIGURES Plates 1 Dhimalhomeland....................................................................................................................18 2 Younggirlwithsieve..............................................................................................................19 3 Āṭhiyābārīquartetinmustardfield.........................................................................................20 4 Younggirlgrindinglentils......................................................................................................20 5 Womansmokingacigarette....................................................................................................21 6 Youngwomengrindingriceatdawn......................................................................................21 7 Creatingthewarp....................................................................................................................22 8 Womanweavingonapitloom................................................................................................22 9 Manpreparingforsacrificesduringparbacelebration............................................................23 10 Youngmencelebratingduringphaguwa.................................................................................23 11 Groom’spartysettingoutforthebride’svillage.....................................................................24 12 Takingabreakfromfoodpreparationatawedding................................................................24 13 Ritualexchangeoutsidethebride’svillage.............................................................................25 14 Bridewithhelpercircumambulatingthegroom......................................................................25 15 Elderlymanrollingacigarette................................................................................................26 Diagrams 1 Consonantphonemes..............................................................................................................27 2 Vowelphonemes.....................................................................................................................36 3 Diphthongs..............................................................................................................................37 4 Personalpronouns...................................................................................................................66 5 Possessivepronouns................................................................................................................67 6 Demonstrativepronouns.........................................................................................................68 7 Simpleagreementparadigm..................................................................................................119 8 Affinalkinregisteragreementparadigm...............................................................................131 ABBREVIATIONSANDCONVENTIONS 1 firstperson 2 secondperson 3 thirdperson ABS absolutenegative ADH adhortative adv adverb ADR affinalkinaddressee adj adjective AGR adhortativetag ALL allative APR apparentive ASS assertive AUX auxiliary CIRC circumlocative CL genericclassifier col collective COL collective COM comitative COM1 sequentialcomitative COND conditional conj conjunction CONR contrastive COP copula d dual DAT dative DED deductive dem demonstrative dim diminutive DIR directive DIST distal DL dual DUB dubitative xii ABBREVIATIONSANDCONVENTIONS EL elative EMP emphatic EXCL exclamative EXT existential f feminine FOC assertivefocus FOC1 argument/sentencefocus FUT future GEN genitive H affininalkin HCL humanclassifier HYP hypothetical HON honorific IM indeterminatemotion IMPL implicational IMP imperative IMPF imperfective INC inceptive IND individuating INF infinitive IRR irrealis INST instrumental inter interjection INTENT intentive LOC locative m masculine MID middle MIR mirative n noun NEG negative NOM nominaliser num numeral OBL oblique p plural P past part particle PASS passive pej pejorative PERF perfective PIMPF pastimperfective PL plural POL polite