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A Flexible Efficient Computer System to Answer Human Questions: The DL*-Programming Language for Artificial Intelligence Applications PDF

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Preview A Flexible Efficient Computer System to Answer Human Questions: The DL*-Programming Language for Artificial Intelligence Applications

Editor I Herausgeber: Prof. Salomon Klaczko-Ryndziun, Zürich Co-Editors I MithBTausgeber: Prof. Ranan Banerji, Temple University, Philadelphia Prof. Jerome A. Feldman, University of Rochester, Rochester Prof. Mohamed Abdelrahman Mansour, ETH, Zürich Prof. Ernst Billeter, Universität Fribourg. Fribourg Prof. Christof Burckhardt, EPF. Lausanne Prof. lvar Ugi, Technische Universität München lnterdisciplinary Systems Research Interdisziplinäre Systemforschung Analysis-Modelling-Simulation Analyse-Formalisierung-Simulation The system science hes been developed from several Oie Systemwissenschaft hat sich aus der Verbindung scientific fie/ds: control and communication theoty, mehren~r Wissenschaftszweige entwickelt: dBT Rege model theoty and computllt' science. Nowadsys it ful lungs-und SteUBTungstheorie, der Kommunikationswis fil/s the n~quiTements which Norbert Wiener fomJulated senschaft, der Modelltheorie und der Informatik. Sie originally foT cybemetics; and were not fessible at his erfüllt heute das Progt'Bmm, dss Norbert Wiener mit time, becsuse of insufficient development of computer seiner Definition von KybBTnetik ursprünglich vorgelegt science in the pest. hat und dessen Oun:hführung zu seinBT Zeit dun:h die Resesrch and pTBCtical application of system science noch ungenügend entwickelte Computerwissenschaft involve wOTks of specialists of system science as weil stark eingeschränkt war. as of those from various fields of application. Up to Die Forschung und die pTBktische Anwendung dBT Sy now, the efficiency of this co-operation has besn pToved stemwissenschaft bezieht heute sowohl die Fachleute in many theoTetical and pTBCtica/ works. dBT Systemwissenschaft als auch die Spezialisten der The SeTiss 'lntenlisciplinBty Systems Research' is in An"'!endungsgebiete ein. ln vielen Bereichen hat sich tended to be a soun:e of infoTmation for university diese Zusammenarbeit mittlerweile bewährt. students and scientists involved in thewetical and ap Oie Reihe "lntenliszip/inäre Systemforschung• setzt plied systems resesn:h. The resder shall be informed sich zum Ziel, dsm Studenten, dem Theon~tiker und sbout the most advanced state of the art in resesn:h, dem Praktiker über den neuesten Stand aus Lehre und app/ication, /ecturing and metathewetical criticism in Fwschung, aus der Anwendung und der metatheore this area. lt is also intended to enlarge this ares by in tischen Kritik dieser Wissenschaft zu berichten. cluding divBTse mathematical modeling pTocedures OieseT Rahmen soll noch insofern erweitert wen/en, als developed in many decades for the description and op die Reihe in ihren Publikationen die mathematischen timization of systems. Mode/lierungsverfahn~n mit einbezieht, die in verschie ln conuast to the fOTmer tradition, which restricted the densten Wissenschaften in vielen Jahrzehnten zur theon~tical conuol and computer science to mathemati Beschreibung und Optimierung von Systemen erarbeitet cians, physicists and engineers, the pTBsent series em wurden. phasizes tha inten/iscip/inarity which system science Entgegen der früheren Tradition, in der die theoretische has resched until now, and which tends to expend. City Regelungs-und Computerwissenschaft auf den Kn~is and n~gional plannen, psychologists, physiologists, dBT Mathematiker, Physiker und lngenieun~ beschränkt economists, ecologists, food scientists, sociologists. ·war, liegt die Betonung dieser Reihe auf der lnten/iszi po/itical scientists, /awyers, pedagogues, philologists, p/inarität, die die Systemwissenschaft mittlerweile er managBTs, diplomats, militaty scientists and other spe reicht hat und weiteT anstn~bt. Stadt-und Regions/pla cia/ists are incTBBsingly confronted or even charged ner, Psycholof1.en, Physiologen, Beuiebswirte, Volks with pToblems of system science. wirtschafter, Okologen, Ernährungswissenschafter, The /SR series will contain resean:h reports-including Soziologen, Politologen, Juristen, Pädagogen, Mana PhD-theses - leetuTe notes, resden for lectures and geT, Diplomaten, Militärwissenschafter und anden~ Fach pToceedings of scientific symposia. The use of less ex leute sehan sich zunehmend mit Aufgaben der System pensive pTinting methods is provided to assure that the forschung konfrontiert odBT sogar beauftragt. authors' results may be offBTed for discussion in the Oie /SR-Reihe wird Forschungsberichte-einschliess shortest time to a brosd, intBTested community. ln OT lich Dissertationen -, Vwlesungsskripten, Resden zu der to assllt'B the repToducibility of the pub/ished results Vwlesungen und Tagungsberichte enthalten. Oie Ver the coding /ists of the used programs should be in wendung wenig aufwendigBT Herstellungsverfahn~n soll cluded in reports about computer simulation. dazu dienen, die Ergebnisse der Autoren in kürzester The intemational character of this series is intended to Frist eineT möglichst breiten, interessierten Offentlich be accomplished by including reports in German, Eng keit zur Diskussion zu stellen. Um auch die Reprodu lish and Fnmch, both from universities and n~sesrch zierberkeit der Ergebnisse zu gewährleisten, werden in centers in the whole world. To assure this goa/, the edi Berichten übeT Arbeiten mit dem ComputBT wenn im tors' bosrd will be composed of repTesentatives of the mer möglich auch die Befehlslisten im Anhang mitge different countriss and areas of interest. druckt. Der internationale Charakter der Reihe soll dun:h die Aufnahme von Arbeiten in Deutsch, Englisch und Franzö sisch aus Hochschulen und Forschungszentren aus aller Welt verwirklicht WBTden. Dafür soll eine entspTe chande Zusammensetzung des Herausgebergremiums sorgen. ISRS lnterdisciplinary Systems Research Interdisziplinäre Systemforschung John Craig Comfort A Flexible Efficient Computer System to Answer Human Questions The DL*-Programming Language for Artificial lntelligence Applications Springer Basel AG 1975 Nachdruck verboten Alle Rechte. insbesondere das der Obersetzung in fremde Sprachen und der Reproduktion auf photostatischem Wege oder durch Mikrofilm. vorbehalten © Springer Basel AG 1975 Ursprunglich erschienen bei Birkhauser Verlag Basel, 1975 Umschlaggestaltung: Albert Gomm swb/ asg ISBN 978-3-7643-0779-0 ISBN 978-3-0348-5994-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-0348-5994-3 Preface in the context of computer science. question answering may be roughly defined as that body of knowledge concerned with inferential retrieval of information contained in a data base. in this book I propose. after some analysis of previous werk. some desirable criteria for question answering systems. and a particular system satisfying some of these criteria. The book is divided. unlike Gaul. into five parts and two appendices. Following the introduction. in which the proposed language (called DL*) is mentioned. is a fairly complete DL* operation manual. and a moderately extended example problem. The fourth part compares and contrasts DL" to some of the programming languages which have been used in artificial intelligence research. while the fifth suggests directions for further development. The first appendix lists the data base alluded to in the third chapter. and the secend is actual output from a simple run. I was greatly assisted in the undertaking ofthiswerk by my guru. Professor Ranan B. Banerji. late of Case Western Reserve University. and my deputy guru. Professor George Ernst. also of Case Western Reserve University. and on another plane. by the systems group associated with the Case PDP-1 0 system. especially James Calvin and Alan Rosenfeld. and bytheAir Force. who partiallysupportedthiswork undercontract number AFOSR-71-211 0. John Craig Comfort Table of Contents Chapter One DL* also Rises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1. lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2. The Structure of the DL* System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Chapter Two A DL* User's Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1. lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.1. Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2. Basic Data Base Entry Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2. 1. Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.2. Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3. Simple (Unquantified) Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3. 1. Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.2. Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.2.1. The -value-Relation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.2.2. The -value-of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.2.2.1. Terms of the Form 'A(B)' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.2.2.2. Terms of the Form 'L.N' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 3.2.2.3. Terms of the Form 'L from N to M' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3.2.2.4. 'inf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3.2.3. The -value-of Arithmetic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3.2.4. The -value-of Primitive Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.2.5. The -value-of Simple Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 4. Quantified Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 4.1. Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 4.2. Semantics (and Non Context Free Syntax) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 4.2.1. The -value-of a Quantified Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 4.2.2. Multiply Quantified Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 4.2.2.1. Separable Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 4.2.2.2. lnseparable Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 4.2.2.3. Backtracking and lts Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 5. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 5. 1 . Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1 5.1.1. Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 5.1.2. lnvocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 5.2. Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 5.2.1. Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 5.2.2. lnvocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 5.2.2.1. Non-recursive Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 5.2.2.2. Potentially Recursive Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 6. Control Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 6.1. Input/Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 6.1.1. Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 6.1.2. Semantics and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 6.2. Remova Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 6.3. The Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 6.4. Change Operating Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 6.5. Dump Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 6.6. Exit Statement ................................... . 69 7. Error Messages ................................... . 69 8. lmplementation Details ............................. . 72 8.1. Data Base Structure: Search Mechanism ................ . 72 8.2. Same Warnings to the User .......................... . 76 Chapter Three DL* and Peace (an Application) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 1 . Description of the General Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 2. Solution of a Specific Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.1. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.2. The Representation of the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 2.3. The Representation of Input Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2.4. Appropriate Definitions 88 2. 5. An Alternative Definition Set 94 Chapter Four DL* and Programming Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 1. DL* as a Programming Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 2. DL* and the Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 2.1. Data Typesand Memory Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.2. Control Flow ........... .'.......................... 108 2.3. Pattern Matehing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 2.4. Deduction Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Chapter Five DL* Slowly Sinks ... (Conclusions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Appendix One: Data Base for the Problem of Chapter Three 121 Appendix Two: A Sampie Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Author Index 133 Subject Index 134 CnAPTER ONE DL* ALSO RISES I. Introduction The realm of interactive systems which permit users to ask questions regarding a data base may be analysed with respect to several cr1ter1a. Most important amonq these are the feasible size of the data bases, the complexity of questions to be asked , and the complexity ot inference. In light of these criteria, three reasonably distinct cla sses of such systems may be discerned. Information retrieval systems are usually categorized by the ability to refer to a quite large data base, by the limited complexity of the types of questions which may be asked, and by the similarly limited complexi ty of inference which may be requested. Theorem proving systems, on the ot i"er hand, usually permit only a relatively small data base, and although quite complex questions are permitted, the common theorem to be proved will be rather simple in form CThe complexity being hidden in other theorems and in deflnitions, already a part of the data base> • The complexity of inference is 2 quite high, usually resulting in a few questions being answered in a large amount of time. The vague area referred to as 11question answering" exists somewhere near the center of the aforementioned realm, as the data bases used are usually of some size, although not extremely large 1 the questions a sked may be qui te complex in form ·' but the inference rulesdand deduction modes are <usually > strongly tied to the procedures for searching through the data base, unlike the more powerful substitution methods <resolution and its successors> used in theorem proving. Question answering may be further categorized syst~ms by the input language used. One class of languaqes accepts a subset of English <or other natural language> as its command language, and the system usually spends much more time in trying to understand the question than in d.iscoverinq the answer. <For an outstanding example of a natural language question answering system, and for a review of earlier work, see Winograd [ 1 J • > A further drawback of a natural language system is that natural language itself is often an extremely inefficient way to describe problems to be solved. The alternative approach sacrifices the immediacy of being able to 11talk11 to the computer, in return for the compactness and power of some other input medium. In this the second r~search,

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