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A Dictionary of Language Acquisition A Comprehensive Overview of Key Terms in First and Second Language Acquisition A Dictionary of Language Acquisition A Comprehensive Overview of Key Terms in First and Second Language Acquisition Hossein Tavakoli -1355 ،ﻦﻴﺴﺣ ،ﻲﻠﻛﻮﺗ :ﻪﺳﺎﻨﺷﺮﺳ Tavakoli, Hossein A Dictionary of Language Acquisition: A Comprehensive Overview of :روآﺪﻳﺪﭘ مﺎﻧ و ناﻮﻨﻋ Key Terms in First and Second Language Acquistion/ Hossein Tavakoli م2012 =1391 ،ﺎﻤﻨﻫر :ناﺮﻬﺗ :ﺮﺸﻧ تﺎﺼﺨﺸﻣ .ص 420 :يﺮﻫﺎﻇ تﺎﺼﺨﺸﻣ ﺎﭙﻴﻓ :ﻲﺴﻳﻮﻧ ﺖﺳﺮﻬﻓ ﺖﻴﻌﺿو ﻲﺴﻴﻠﮕﻧا :ﺖﺷاددﺎﻳ ...ﺞﻳاﻮﮕﻨﻟ وآ يﺮﻨﺸﻜﻳد :ناﻮﻨﻋ ﻲﺴﻳﻮﻧاوآ ﺎﻫﺮﻴﺒﻌﺗ و ﺎﻫح ﻼﻄﺻا - - يزﻮﻣآن ﺎﺑز :عﻮﺿﻮﻣ P118/ت9د9 1391 :هﺮﮕﻨﻛ يﺪﻨﺑه در 401/9 :ﻲﻳﻮﻳد يﺪﻨﺑه در 2945539 :ﻲﻠﻣ ﻲﺳﺎﻨﺸﺑﺎﺘﻛ هرﺎﻤﺷ All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the permission, in writing, from the Publisher. RAHNAMA PRESS Copyright © 2012 No. 112, Shohadaye Zhandarmerie St. (Moshtagh St.), Between Farvardin & Fakhre Razi, Enghelab Ave., Oppo. Tehran University, Tehran, Iran. P.O. Box: 13145/1845 - Tel: (021) 66416604 & 66400927 E-mail: [email protected] http://www.rahnamapress.com ISBN-10: 9643675343 ISBN-13: 9789643675349 ،مﺎﻓه ﺮﻘﻧ ﺔﻧﺎﺨـﭘﺎﭼ :پﺎﭼ ،ﺎﻤﻨﻫر :ﻲﻓاﺮﮔﻮﺘﻴﻟ ،ﻲﻠﻛﻮﺗ ﻦﻴﺴﺣ :ﻒﻟﺆﻣ ، A Dictionary of Language Acquisition نﺎﺑﺎﻴﺧ ﺶﺒﻧ ،ﻦﻳدروﺮﻓ نﺎﺑﺎﻴﺧ ،ناﺮﻬﺗ هﺎﮕﺸﻧاد ﻞﺑﺎﻘﻣ :سردآ ،ﺎﻤﻨﻫر تارﺎﺸﺘﻧا :ﺮﺷﺎﻧ ،ﻪﺨﺴﻧ 1000 :ژاﺮﻴﺗ ،1391 :لوا پﺎﭼ ،ﺎﻤـﻨﻫر هﺎﮕـﺷوﺮـﻓ ، 66467424 :ﺲﻛﺎﻓ ،66481662 ،66416604 ، 66400927 :ﻦﻔﻠﺗ ،112 كﻼـﭘ ،يﺮﻣراﺪﻧاژ ياﺪﻬﺷ :4 هرﺎﻤﺷ هﺎﮕﺷوﺮﻓ سردآ ، 88694102 :ﻦﻔﻠﺗ ،29 كﻼﭘ ،ﻲﻗﺮﺷ 42 و 40 ﻦﻴﺑ ،ﻲﺑﻮﻨﺟ ﻲﻳﺎﺒﻃﺎﺒﻃ ﻪﻣﻼﻋ نﺎـﺑﺎـﻴﺧ ،دﺎﺑآت دﺎﻌﺳ ژﺎﺳﺎﭘ ناﺮﻬﺗ هﺎﮕﺸﻧاد ﻞﺑﺎﻘﻣ ،ﺎﻤﻨﻫر بﺎﺘﻛ هﺎﮕﺸﻳﺎﻤﻧ ،77482505 :ﻦﻔﻠﺗ ،ﻲﻳاﻮﻫ يوﺮﻴﻧ مﻮﺳ نﺎﺑﺎﻴﺧ ﺶﺒﻧ يزوﺮﻴﭘ نﺎﺑﺎﻴﺧ 978-964-367-534-9 :ﻚﺑﺎﺷ ، 66950957 :ﻦﻔﻠﺗ ،هﺪﻧزوﺮﻓ ﺖﺳا ظﻮﻔﺤﻣﺮﺷﺎﻧياﺮﺑ پﺎﭼ ﻖﺣ To my parents Introduction The function of “A dictionary of language acquisition: A comprehensive overview of key terms in first and second language acquisition” is to collect and synthesize the knowledge base that is already well accepted and that has been well researched. Thus, it is a reference guide which offers an authorita- tive and encyclopedic survey of key terms and concepts in the areas of lan- guage acquisition and development. The volume is intended as a resource to elucidate various concepts, issues, approaches, models, and theories of lan- guage acquisition in an efficient and accessible style. This book makes use of approximately 1000 alphabetical entries with cross references where neces- sary. Cross-referencing is achieved in several ways. Within each entry, any term that is itself a key idea with its own entry is printed in SMALL CAPITAL LETTERS on first use. There are also in-text entries that are defined within the body of the paragraph and are printed in bold letters. Other entries that are related to the term at issue that might be of interest and further investigation are either provided in the main text or listed at the end of each entry under ‘see’ and ‘see also’ respectively. In this volume, the sign has also been used for representing the sources from which the materials have been direct- ly or indirectly reproduced or adapted. This volume is designed to appeal to undergraduate and graduate students, teachers, lecturers, practitioners, researchers, consultants, and consumers of information across the field of both first and second language acquisition. I would very much welcome reactions and comments from readers, especial- ly relating to points where I may have lapsed or strayed from accuracy of meaning, consistency of style, etc., in the interests of improving coverage and treatment for future editions. Hossein Tavakoli 2012 [email protected] absolute implicational universals a term referring to features which are found without exception in languages, if some other feature is found. For example: • Phonology. If a language has mid vowels, then it has high vowels. Thus not all languages have one of /i, u/, but if a language has a mid vowel /e, o, ɛ, ɔ/, then it has at least one of /i, u/. • Morphology. If a language distinguishes the categories ‘dual’ (i.e., exact- ly 2 in number) and ‘singular’ in its pronouns, it distinguishes the catego- ry ‘plural’ as well. Many languages distinguish singular and plural pro- nouns, as in English he/she versus they, and I versus we (a distinction ab- sent in the 2nd person: you singular and plural). But relatively few lan- guages distinguish singular and dual, as does Arabic, which also has plu- rals. • Syntax. If a language has relative clauses, it has relative clauses whose heads are coreferential with the subject of the clause, as in the first exam- ple of 1-4, below. In the three other examples, the head of the clause is coreferential with a direct object, indirect object, and object of a preposi- tion, respectively. a) people [who lend their cars to friends for dates] b) cars [which people lend to friends for dates] c) friends [who people lend their cars (to) for dates] d) dates [which people lend their cars to friends for] Even though all languages have relative clauses (an ABSOLUTE NON- IMPLICATIONAL UNIVERSAL), not all of the types of relative clauses are found in all languages. Only the first, subject type, is always found. If one of the other types is found, the types above it in the hierarchy are also found, as in the following rankings: 1 2 3 4 Subject < object < indirect object > other propositional object 2 absolute non-implicational universals If there are relative calluses of type 4, then there are such clauses of type 3, etc. This hierarchy of possibilities is known as noun phrase accessibility (see ACCESSIBILITY HIERARCHY) see also NON-IMPLICATIONAL UNIVERSAL TENDENCIES, IMPLICATIONAL UNI- VERSAL TENDENCIES Hudson 2000 absolute non-implicational universals a term referring to features which appear to be found without exceptions in languages. Some of these concern MARKEDNESS, the relationship of relative expectedness, likelihood, and often, evident simplicity between contrastive phonological or morphological features of language. For example: • Phonology. An important type of absolute non-implicational universal of phonology and morphology concerns markedness between contrastive phones or features of phones. The phone or phonetic feature which is more common and has other characteristics expected of the more com- mon and presumably more basic category is said to be unmarked. The phone or feature which contrasts with the unmarked phone or feature is said to be marked. Some unmarked and marked phonological categories are: Unmarked Marked • [-aspirated] stops [+aspirated] stops • [-voiced] obstruents [+voiced] obstruents • [+voiced] sonorants [-voiced] sonorants • labiodental fricatives bilabial fricatives • [-nasal] vowels [+nasal] vowels • [+round] back vowels [-round] back vowels Unmarked categories have some or all of the following characteristics, which explain their relative commonality: a) Greater frequency (likelihood of occurrence) across languages b) Greater frequency within a language c) Less restricted context of occurrence d) Presence in contexts where marked categories are absent (e.g., voiceless obstruents appear word-finally where voiced stops and fricatives are ab- sent in many languages, including Russian, German, Turkish, etc.) e) Greater number of variants; thus there are more coronal consonants pho- nemes than consonants phonemes at the other places of articulations. (English, for example, has coronal (alveolar) stops and fricatives, a nasal absolute non-implicational universals 3 /n/, and alveolar /l/; the labials, dorsals (velars), and glottals are consid- erably fewer) f) Simpler or lesser form The term ‘unmarked’ is most appropriate for a category with lesser form, which may be said to be lesser in form by lacking the mark of a marked cat- egory. The correlation of greater frequency and lesser form is itself a univer- sal tendency, known as ZIPF’S LAW. Often unmarked categories are found to fulfill the additional characteristics of being earlier learned by children. Eng- lish learning children, for example, often have voiceless obstruents for adult word-final voiced obstruents. Among other absolute non-implicational phonological universals are: a) All languages have consonants and vowels. b) All languages have at least one voiceless stop, such as [p, t, k]. c) All languages have syllables consisting of a consonant followed by one vowel (CV syllables). • Morphology. Among the contrastive morphological contrastive morpho- logical categories are singular versus plural, masculine versus feminine, and animate versus inanimate. For each of these, the former is unmarked and the latter marked. Concerning singular versus plural, for example: a) Singulars are much more frequent than plurals, across languages. b) Singulars often occur where plurals are absent; thus in many lan- guages when a plural number is present the plural form of nouns is avoided. In English, plurality must ordinarily be marked on plural count noun; however, when speaking of measurements we say, for example, a seven foot door and not a seven feet door. c) Singulars typically have more variants, as in English third-person pronouns, which distinguish masculine, feminine, and neuter singular he, she, it versus only they for the plural. d) Singular nouns are typically unaffixed while plurals are affixed. Ex- ceptional languages are quite rare, such as Ethiopian Cushitic Sidamo which has a singular suffix as well as plural suffixes. In all such lan- guages, noun number may go unexpressed, so the singular suffix is still less frequent than the plural suffix of other languages. Among other absolute non-implicational morphological universals are: All languages have nouns and verbs. That is, all languages have two morpheme classes with characteristics ordinarily recognized as those of nouns and verbs—nouns, for example functioning as subjects and objects of verbs, forming plurals, taking determiners, etc., and verbs expressing tense, aspect 4 academic competence and modality, often showing agreement with a subject, etc. Also, all lan- guages have a negative morpheme, whether for verbs or nouns, or both. • Syntax. All languages have relative clause, clauses within noun phrases which modify the head noun of the clause. see also NON-IMPLICATIONAL UNIVERSAL TENDENCIES, ABSOLUTE IMPLICA- TIONAL UNIVERSALS, IMPLICATIONAL UNIVERSAL TENDENCIES Hudson 2000 academic competence the knowledge needed by learners who want to use the L2 primarily to learn about other subjects, or as a tool in scholarly research, or as a medium in a specific professional or occupational field. Learners with such a goal should concentrate above all on acquiring the specific vocabulary of their field or subject area, and on developing knowledge that enables them to read rele- vant texts fluently in that subject area. If language learners plan to study the subject at an L2-medium university, beyond specific vocabulary knowledge and reading ability, they must also put a high priority on processing oral L2 input during lectures and class discussions, i.e., on developing the ability to engage successfully in academic listening. Further, they are likely to need proficiency in L2 academic writing in order to display their knowledge on examinations that may be required for university admission and to earn aca- demic degrees. Many students need to develop L2 writing proficiency for the academic purposes of producing term papers or theses, and researchers may need to do so for publishing articles for international information exchange. Developing L2 academic reading, listening, and writing proficiency, howev- er, does not necessarily require fluent speaking ability, particularly for learn- ers studying the L2 in a foreign language context. see also INTERPERSONAL COMPETENCE Saville-Troike 2006 Accessibility Hierarchy also Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy, NPAH,, AH a continuum of relative clause types such that the presence of one type im- plies the presence of other types higher on the hierarchy. According to them, all languages that form relative clauses form subject relative clauses; all those that can form direct object relative clauses can also form subject rela- tives, and so on down the hierarchy. In addition, certain relative clauses will be more di cult to process and to acquire in certain roles; the variation will be both systematic and hierarchical. The Hierarchy predicts universal con- straints on the order of acquisition of relative clauses by means of an impli- cational scale which expresses the relative accessibility of relativization of
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