(1200-1050 BC) by HALIMA SHA submitted in accordance with the requ

497 Pages·2017·13.3 MB·English

THE ROLE AND STATUS OF WOMEN DURING THE PRE-MONARCHIC
PERIOD (1200-1050 BC)
by

HALIMA SHA

submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of

MASTERS

in the subject of

BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY
at the
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

Supervisor: Professor M. Le Roux

November 2017
i
DEDICATION
In loving memory of my father Sahib Hussan Sha and my beloved nephew Emilio Bowman.
ii
DECLARATION

Name: Halima Eugene Sha

Student number: 49323733

Degree: Masters in Biblical Archaeology

Exact wording of the title of the dissertation or thesis as appearing on the copies submitted
for examination:

The Role and Status of Women during the Pre-Monarchic Period (ca 1200 – 1050 BC)

I declare that the above dissertation/thesis is my own work and that all the sources that I have
used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references.
8 November 2017
SIGNATURE DATE
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:
I would first like to express my eternal gratefulness to my Saviour, The Lord, Jesus Christ, for
granting me His life, strength and perseverance in writing this dissertation.
Next, I want to extend my sincere gratitude and thankfulness to my advisor Professor Magdel
Le Roux for her continuous and unfailing support of my master’s dissertation and related
research, for her endless patience, inspiration, and immeasurable knowledge. Her precious
guidance and insightful comments assisted me throughout the research and the writing of this
dissertation. I could not have envisaged having a better advisor and mentor for my master’s
study.
For their enduring love, support, encouragement, comfort and strength, I thank my family:
My mother: Veronique Rhoda Sha, an eternal blessing.
My sisters: Lilah Boehnke and Nadine Sha, extraordinary warrior hearts.
My nieces and nephews: Celine Bowman, Kamira Bessenbacher, Yonela Boehnke, Anakin
Sha, the breath of my life.
I would also like to thank my dearest Z.A.K. On a quiet winter’s night, a dream began. Yours
Sincerely.
Finally, I thank Ms. L. Le Roux for editing the manuscript.
iv
Summary
The lives of women are largely hidden in the Old Testament. New archaeological investigations
into the households of Iron Age I have brought forward new evidence that sheds light on the
authority status and roles of women in the pre-monarchic tribal community. Conventional
theory perceives that women were always oppressed and marginalised under a malevolent
system of male rule in the Bible. The evidence indicates differently. Investigations in the
domestic sphere, where the household processes were under women’s control and
management, imply that women held authority that was equal to male power in the public
domain. It has been revealed that women held significant positions in the public sphere as well.
This study, therefore, is an investigation into women’s status and the wide-ranging socio-
economic and religious roles they held within a system of male rule that allowed women their
authority and autonomy in a unique period of Israelite history.
Keywords
Women’s authority; Patriarchy; Pre-monarchic period; Syncretic religion; Household religion;
Bêt ēm; Bêt āb; Religious duties; Farming duties; Weaving; Food preparation; Deborah;
Achsah; Covenant; High places; Sanctuary; Tabernacle; Cult corners; Motherhood; Nazirite
vow; Jael; The mother of Samson; Egalitarianism; Four-room house; Niddah; YHWH; Baal;
Baal-berith; Shechem; Asherah; Fertility; Figurines; Magic healing; Archaeology; Tabun;
Looms; ‘Kitchen’; Tell Halif; Tell Beit Mirsim; Judge; Prophetess; Wise women; Votive;
Offerings; Childbirth; Purification; Priestess; Barren; Sacrifices; Sacred magic; The mother of
Micah; The Book of Judges.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication
i
Declaration
ii
Acknowledgements
iii
Summary and keywords
iv
List of illustrations
xvii

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 1
1.1.1 Feminists’ perspective of patriarchy 4
1.1.1.1 Patriarchal control over women 4
1.1.1.2 ‘Anti-woman ideologies’ 6
1.1.1.3 Feminism and the women in the Book of Judges 7
a. The stories of nameless women 7
b. Marginalised and invisible 8
c. The dilemma of patriarchy according to feminism 10
d. Reading the stories in the Bible from the feminist point of view 11
1.1.2 The portrayal of women in the Bible 12
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENTS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 13
1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 15
1.4 HYPOTHESIS 16
1.5 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS 17
1.6 METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS 20
1.6.1 Approach 20
1.6.2 Structure of the dissertation 22
1.7 LITERATURE REVIEW 24
vi
1.7.1 Primary sources 24
1.7.2 Secondary sources 25
1.8 LIMITATIONS 29

CHAPTER TWO
WOMEN IN A PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY

2.1 INTRODUCTION 31
2.2 VARIOUS MODELS FOR THE ORIGINS AND SOCIAL
ORGANISATION OF THE TRIBAL SOCIETY 32
2.2.1 Models for the origins of the Israelites 32
2.2.2 Models for the social organisation of the tribal society 34
2.2.2.1 Heterarchy as model for the social organisation of the Israelites 38
2.3 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS SETTINGS: A BACKDROP TO WOMEN’S
LIVES IN THE PRE-MONARCHIC COMMUNITY 40
2.3.1 The traditional understanding of the ‘rule of the father’ (patriarchy) 44
2.3.2 Characteristics of the women in the Book of Judges 46
2.3.2.1 Feminists perception of the women and the pre-monarchic world they
inhabited 47
a. The women in the Book of Judges according to the feminist view 47
b. Feminists view of patriarchy in the pre-monarchic period. 51
2.3.3 The covenant between YHWH and His people 54
2.3.3.1 The ezer-kenegdo authority 55
2.3.3.2 Hidden polemics in the Book of Judges 57
2.3.3.3. Deborah: The wife of Lapidoth and a ‘mother in Israel’ 60
2.3.4 Theocratic social arrangement: benevolent patriarchy 63
2.4 REDEFINING PATRIARCHY 65
2.4.1 Introduction 65
2.4.1.1 Varying levels of male rule 67
a. Variations in male rule 68
b. Benevolent patriarchy: An 'interlocal' form of patriarchy 69
c. Paternal authority as a form of benevolent patriarchy 71
vii
d. Patriarchal authority 72
e. Jephthah’s daughter a sign of the times to come 74
2.4.1.2 The benevolent father in the house of the father (bêt āb) 76
2.4.1.3 The authority of bêt āb 77
a. The household 77
b. The community (extended family) 79
2.5 PATRIARCHY IN CERTAIN CULTURAL CONTEXTS: TRADITIONAL
VERSUS MEYERS 81
2.5.1 The marriage of Achsah and Othniel 81
2.5.2 Patriarchy and warfare 83
2.6 WOMEN AND MALE RULE 87
2.6.1 Male rule in the pre-monarchic setting 87
2.6.2 Male rule and motherhood 90
2.6.2.1 The mother of Samson 92
2.6.3 Women’s authority in the pre-monarchic period 95
2.7 ‘HIDDEN’ WOMEN’S LIVES IN THE PRE-MONARCHIC PERIOD 97
2.7.1 Introduction 97
2.7.2 Polemics of writing a history of women in the pre-monarchic period 97
2.7.2.1 The Bible as sole textual source 97
2.7.2.2 ‘Liberating’ the Bible from patriarchy 98
2.7.3 Constructing a ‘women’s history’ 100
2.7.3.1 Areas of focus in constructing a ‘women’s history’ 102
2.7.3.2 The domestic economy: the base of the early agrarian community 103
2.8 CONCLUSION 104

CHAPTER THREE
GENDER RELATIONS IN THE PRE-MONARCHIC ERA

3.1 INTRODUCTION 108
3.1.1 Mutual coexistence 108
3.1.2 The delicate balance between pre-monarchic men and women 109
3.1.3 Gender inequality 112
viii
3.1.3.1 The ‘rise of class society’ and the oppression of women 114
a. The women from Jabesh Gilead and Shiloh 115
3.1.3.2 The subjugation of women 117
a. Oppressed women or equal members of the community? 117
b. The stories in Genesis and gender equality 118
c. The people’s ‘understanding of gender’ 119
d. Gender and space 121
3.2 POSITIVE IMPACTS ON GENDER RELATIONS 124
3.2.1 Households and egalitarianism 124
3.2.1.1 Egalitarianism in village life 124
3.2.1.2 The environment 125
3.2.1.3 The tasks of women in the pre-monarchic period 127
a. Women’s specific religious tasks 127
b. Women as protectors and guardians 130
3.2.1.4 The status of women in the family 131
3.3 CONCLUSION 132

CHAPTER FOUR
WOMEN’S RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES

4.1 INTRODUCTION 135
4.2 BACKGROUND TO WOMEN’S RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES 135
4.2.1 Women’s overlooked cultic behaviour 135
4.2.1.1 The influence of women’s roles in the pre-monarchic religion(s) 137
4.2.1.2 Outline of the sacred life of women 140
4.3 WORSHIPPING YHWH 140
4.3.1 YHWH and His covenants 141
4.3.1.1 The Abrahamic covenant 141
4.3.1.2 The Mosaic covenant 141
a. The covenant confirmed 142
4.3.2 The Tabernacle at Shiloh 144
4.3.2.1 The layout of the Tabernacle 145
ix
4.3.2.2 The Ark of the Covenant 146
4.3.2.3 Votive offerings at the Tabernacle 146
4.3.2.4 The purification rite after childbirth 147
4.3.2.5 Women presenting sin offerings to YHWH 148
4.3.2.6 Sacrifices at the fulfillment of the Nazirite vow 149
4.3.2.7 Women’s religious duties at the Tabernacle in Shiloh 150
a. Service at entrance of Tabernacle 150
b. Baking of bread 153
c. Providing water, spices, oil 154
d. Cooking duties 155
e. Weaving and cleaning activities 155
4.3.2.8 Additional duties performed by women at the Tabernacle 156
a. Music making 156
b. Singing 158
c. Dancing 158
d. Composing poetry 158
4.3.2.9 Women as professional mourners 159
4.3.3 Sacred vows 159
4.3.3.1 Hannah and the wife of Manoah 161
a. Hannah 161
b. The wife of Manoah 161
4.3.4 Theophanies 162
4.3.4.1 Deborah 162
4.3.4.2 The mother of Samson 164
4.3.5 Blessing and curses 165
4.3.5.1 Deborah’s blessing and cursing 168
4.3.6 Sacrifices and festivals in honour of YHWH 170
4.3.7 The roles of women in the religion of YHWH 173
4.3.7.1 Deborah the warrior 173
4.3.7.2 Deborah the prophetess 176
4.3.7.3 Deborah the lawgiver and judge 180
4.3.7.4 The wise woman 182
4.3.7.5 Warrior and prophet but never a priest? 184