Sustaining biological welfare for our future through consistent science.

0.38 MB·English

by  Shimomura, Yoshihiro

ShimomuraandKatsuuraJournalofPhysiologicalAnthropology2013,32:1
http://www.jphysiolanthropol.com/content/32/1/1
REVIEW Open Access
Sustaining biological welfare for our future
through consistent science
Yoshihiro Shimomura* and Tetsuo Katsuura
Abstract
Physiological anthropology presently covers a very broad range ofhumanknowledge and engineering
technologies. Thisstudy reviews scientificinconsistencies within a variety ofareas:sitting posture;negative air ions;
oxygen inhalation; alpha brain waves induced by music and ultrasound; 1/ffluctuations; theevaluationof feelings
using surface electroencephalography; Kansei; universal design; and anti-stress issues. We found that the
inconsistencies within theseareas indicate theimportance ofintegrative thinking and theneed to maintain the
perspective onthebiologicalbenefitto humanity. Analytical science divides human physiological functions into
discrete details, although individuals comprise a unified collection of whole-body functions. Such disparate
considerations contribute to themisunderstandingof physiological functions and the misevaluation ofpositive and
negative values for humankind. Research related to humanhealth will, in future, depend on theconcept of
maintaining physiological functions based onconsistent science and onsustaining human health to maintain
biological welfare in future generations.
Keywords: Biological benefit, Ergonomics, Inconsistency, Integrative thinking,Physiologicalfunction,Universal
design
Review revolutionsandshiftingparadigmsofergonomicsoverfour
Physiological anthropology encompasses the fields of generations, in fields ranging from the workplace and
what is good and comfortable in the design of tools, biomechanical capability to the biological enhancement of
environments, orsystemsbased onhumancharacteristics, physical or cognitive capabilities. The emerging ethical
in order to increase the quality of life. The perspective of problem that they highlight is the relationship between
physiological anthropology, in terms of research metho- human beings and technology, and they warn us of the
dology, is much broader than that of other research disci- importance of optimal integration. On the other hand, the
plines.Forexample,a‘humanbeing’hasmanymeaningsin technological adaptability and physiological polymorphism
human science, such as a pure biological entity [1], an described by Sato [8] and its application to manufacturing
anthropologicalentitythatprogressivelyformsculturesand and design [9] might provide researchers with abasic con-
societies [2], a maker or user of artificial materials or cept for considering how human beings, who have evolved
environments [3,4], and a task-based entity, such as that over a period of five million years, should adapt to the ex-
discussed by Rasmussen [5]. However, all aspects of pre- plosive development of today’s technological environment.
vious research regard humankind scientifically, and Although some studies, such as these conceptual frame-
researchers believe that analytical methodology is the way works, have attempted to lead future human science, the
to categorize humans in discrete detail, even though an philosophy of science for the welfare of humanity remains
individual comprisesa unified set ofwhole-bodyfunctions. obscure because the word ‘human’ remains undefined and
Brewer and Hsiang [6] described multidisciplinary human the concept of the ‘human’ varies between researchers.
science and engineering, such as ergonomics, as targeting Therefore,thispresent studyreviewsscientificinconsisten-
future challenges.Theyconsiderthatmethodologicalunifi- cies resulting from analytical considerations of technology
cation and its expansion are important. Boff [7] described andhumanbeings,anddiscussestheseissuesfromvarious
perspectivestoadvanceinterpretationsbasedonintegrative
*Correspondence:[email protected] thinking. The items discussed in this study refer to
GraduateSchoolofEngineering,ChibaUniversity,Chiba,Japan
©2013ShimomuraandKatsuura;licenseeBioMedCentralLtd.ThisisanOpenAccessarticledistributedunderthetermsof
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distribution,andreproductioninanymedium,providedtheoriginalworkisproperlycited.
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keywordsinscientificdesignconsiderationsinphysiological thinking about physiological functions of the total body,
anthropology [10], and were selected to contain a variety such as overall spine biomechanics, blood flow, leg edema,
of areas of human science, such as the musculoskeletal, digestion,andcognitivefunction.
circulatory, and central nervous systems, brain function,
andstressrelief.Aconceptfortoday’shumantechnological Negativeairions
lifestyle is proposed from the perspective of sustained Many reports have scientifically explained the comfort
biologicalwelfareforfuturegenerations. gained from being near a waterfall or a forest where
negative ions are in the air. Some have demonstrated
Isthereaconsistentunderstandingof‘human’? that negative air ions reduce physiological and psycho-
Although all previous studies of human science and en- logical stress and exert positive effects on human beings
gineering with a proper purpose and valid experimental [21-23]. In contrast, others contradict these findings
techniques mustbe correct in terms of analytical science [24,25]. One study even demonstrated that electrically
and a single understanding of what ‘human’ means, in- generated negative ions in air can cause pathological
consistencies have arisen. These examples help to clarify damage [26].
these scientific inconsistencies and provide a platform Thinking rationally, molecular clusters of water [27]
fordiscussion. are not large enough to be absorbed through the
pulmonary alveoli. The reduction in stress markers
Sittingpostureforvideodisplayterminalworkers might simply have been caused by humidity generated
To fit the height of a chair to a human leg and lean the by water protecting the skin and mucosa, along with
head downward a little is held to be common-sense possible negativeionsintheair [28].
ergonomics for video display terminal (VDT) workers
[11-13] (Figure 1). However, a horizontal seat pan forms Oxygeninhalation
asmalleranglebetweenthespinalcolumnandthethigh, ‘Oxygen bars’ have recently become popular as thought is
and is thus associated with an unequal distribution of supposedly clarified, and recovery from fatigue is rapid.
tension in the ligaments and muscles of the anterior and However,thetypicalarterial oxygensaturationofahealthy
posteriorsidesofthespine[14,15]becauseofpost-bending individual is just above 95% [29]. Moreover, measurements
the spinal column [16-18]. Although some declination of ofbloodflowinthecerebralcortexdemonstratethatastro-
the head might help to avoid eyestrain, the shoulders and cytes control the functional hyperemia and result in suffi-
neck must stiffen to supportthe weight ofthehead (about cientoxygentomatchtheamountofconsumption[30].
5 kg) via steady-state activation of the trapezius and neck It is, in fact, not known whether an excess of oxygen
extensor muscles [19,20]. Since the earliest phase of exceeds the balance of homeostasis in blood. Superfluous
ergonomics,noresearcherhasbeenabletodesignthemost and long-term oxygen inhalation might increase the
appropriate chair. The problem of designing a chair is a productionoffreeradicals[31],andmightbedeleteriousto
typical example of the issues that require integrative health [32,33]. Researchers must consider not only the
Figure1Thepropersittingposturecommonlyrecommendedbyresearchers.ThepictureontheleftwasdrawnbyGrieco[71]andthaton
therightshowsthatrecenttrendshavenotchangedatallsincethen.
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immediateeffectsofthetechnologybut also thelong-term organs to complete themselves. Therefore, inductive think-
effectofitscontinuousapplication. ing based on statistical equivalence might not be the most
appropriatewaytoexplainthewholebodyofalivingthing.
Alphawavesinducedbyrelaxationmusic
Many types of music might increase the quantity of alpha
Evaluationoffeelingsusingsurface
brain waves, as measured in electroencephalograms. Iwaki
electroencephalography
etal.[34]showedanincreaseinalphabandamplitudewith
Severalreportshavediscussedthedeterminationoffeelings
music stimulation, while Kawasaki et al. [35] clarified that
and emotions using electroencephalography [50-52].
music-inducedpleasureincreasestheintensityofthealpha
According to the somatic-marker hypothesis [53], emotion
waves. Many reports have indicated that the production of
is the result of a series of changes in body states, such as
alphawavesisincreasedbyrelaxation.
the defense and stress reaction, in which the amygdala
Incidentally, one study has shown that rates of alpha
processes input signals from whole-body receptors. The
wavesincreasedmoreduringanexperimentwithrelaxation
hypothalamus, hypophysis, and brain stem in the deeper
audiostimulithanwithageneralmusic.However,thesub-
partofbraincontrolthesebodystates.
jectofthatexperimenthadclosedhiseyesastherelaxation
Native emotions, such as fear and joy, are adaptive sys-
audio was played. This was reflected as changes in brain
temsautomatedbythelimbicsystemandthePapezcircuit
activity with or without vision-processing [36]. Because
[54,55], whereas the frontal lobe and ventral medial field
human beings are the sum of a total of many body func-
changephysiologicalstatesthroughnativeemotioncircuits
tions,toisolateandconsideronlyasinglepartofthewhole
to express more complex acquired emotions, such assym-
is treacherous. Physiological indexes should be correctly
pathy, jealousy, or pleasure. The insular cortex and the
interpreted.
somatosensorycortexareaperceivebodyreactionsinemo-
tions, and then the frontal area processes information and
Ultrasoundcanbeperceived
buildsfeelingsbasedonindividualexperienceandmem-
Ultrasound found in nature, wind chimes, and gamelan
ory. Feelings are induced through such multi-regional
music is generally thought to induce relaxation with an
coordinated processes. Thus, measuring feelings with
increase of the alpha-wave activity [37-39]. However, an
only a surface electrode is theoretically impossible. The
auditorybrainstemresponsetoultrasonictoneburstsata
limitationsofamethodologyshouldbestrictlyunderstood
suitable amplitude modulation showed that the sound
by researchers, if they are to form a valid description of
doesnotreachthebrainstem[40];thatis,humanscannot whatis‘human’.
perceiveultrasonicsound.
Ultrasonic vibration signals delivered as experimental
Kansei
sound stimuli through speakers might lead to slight dis-
Kansei is the ability to recognize by intuition [8]. This
tortion [41] within the audible range [42], and possibly
ability is cultivated by bypassing the perception of a
generate a different sound. The use of more precise
somatic reaction [53] by the frontal lobe, such as the
technology to evaluate human perception should resolve
orbitofrontal cortexviatheinsularcortexandotherlimbic
thisinconsistency.
regions[56,57].Somaticreactionsaremarkedbythefrontal
1/ffluctuations lobe aspositiveornegative,andtheinternal end point can
be judged immediately without any intervening stage or
Thevibrationorperiodicphenomenoninwhichamplitude
conscioususeofreasoning[8].Decision-makingbyanindi-
or power is inversely proportional to frequency, especially
inlogarithmicscales,isdefinedas1/fnoise[43].High-and vidualisnotalwaysrationalandlogical,butcanbeillogical
and intuitive. Linguistic explanations and social thinking
low-frequency vibrations should have a small and a large
occur thereafter. Therefore, subjective evaluation that can
amplitude, respectively, and the amplitude should be infin-
bedescribedinsymbolsdoesnotexpressKansei.Studiesof
iteatadirectcurrentcontentof0Hz,ifenergyequilibrium
is assumed. The 1/f property is a very appropriate and Kansei engineering [58-60] might not have necessarily
evaluatedKanseiappropriately.
convenient means to explain natural periodic phenomena
In addition, the range of the Kansei reach is restricted
instatisticalmechanics.
within individualexperienceandisvery narrow, which is
Biological parameters, such as heart rate and electroen-
cephalograms, follow 1/f fluctuations [44-46]. However, adrawbackfor designers.
respiratory sinus arrhythmia [47,48] is absent if heart rate
variabilitymaintains1/fscaling.Furthermore,1/fproperties Universaldesign
donotshowdominantbands,suchasalphawaves,inelec- Currently,universaldesignistheadaptationofaproduct
troencephalograms [49]. Living things, from microbes to or environment to various users by involving a group
human, control statistical probability by coordinating their that is challenged by some obstacle or by age [61-63].
ShimomuraandKatsuuraJournalofPhysiologicalAnthropology2013,32:1 Page4of6
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This is the same as improving usability and accessibility terms of analytical details. The perspective of physiological
foraclassified usergroup. anthropologyismuchwiderthanthatofotherresearchdis-
Nominally, human beings have a large brain, dexterity, ciplines, so it essentially has an interdisciplinary method-
and the ability to walk. However, morphological, func- ology. Physiological anthropologists should not be satisfied
tional, and cultural aspects vary considerably among withonlyananalyticalwayofscience.
worldwide populations. Essential discussions about what As noted by Sato [8], modern human beings evolved
is universal for human beings, the nature of design and through harsh environmental conditions over a periodof
what it is to be human do not exist in the current litera- about five million years. All human physiological functions
ture. This condition is insufficient for the establishment were created solely to adapt to nature. Today’s human
ofa‘universal’science. sciences appear simply to detail observations of human
beings in terms of only single aspects of evolutionary
Anti-stress outcomes and might forget that humanbeingshave along
The reduction of physiological stress is very important historyofadaptingtonature.Therefore,researchersshould
in many of today’s human sciences, such as ergonomics think not only about the phenomenon currently facing
[64-67]. However, humanity cannot maintain mental and them but also of the physiological functions that comprise
physiological functions without stress. All current indus- thetotalhumanbeing.
trial products and environmental designs have focused To maintain present conditions and quality of life would
on suppressing stress in human beings to achieve comfort be impossible without the support of life engineering,
and to remove inconveniences or difficulties from the antibiotic,and medical technologies. For human science to
environment. Technology has now reached a point where progress under such circumstances, the concept of main-
disuse atrophy (Figure 2), potential reduction, and func- taining physiological functions and expanding biological
tional degeneration are significantly promoted. Stress is adaptation ability by suitable stress management should
simply a reaction to a stressor, so good and bad stress perhaps be based on consistent science. In addition, the
originally had no meaning. Stress should be carefully health of Homo sapiens should be sustained to establish a
addressedbyintegrativethinking,especiallyinphysiological biologicalwelfarethatwillpersistforgenerationstocome.
anthropology, rather than based solely on research from Humanbeingshaveinventedvariousdevicesandcreated
individualdisciplines. tools and viable environments over five million years of
evolution.Thisprocessisanactofdesignthatisuniqueto
Expectationsforconsistentscience humankind and it mostly engages integrative thinking.
Scientificinconsistenciescautionthathumanbeingsshould Physiological anthropology could also be considered as the
not be interpreted from a single intelligible analytical per- disciplinefordevelopingthehumanactofdesign.Asignifi-
spective.Intelligibleanalyticalsciencewilldeprivehumanity cant argument regarding the future of physiological an-
of the opportunity for integrative thought [68-70]. Thus, if thropology will hopefully be generated with respect to
arguments range across various disciplines, inconsistencies integrative scientific research and a steadfast vision of
will frequently arise, even if each study is appropriate in the future of humanity based on current technological
lifestyles.
Conclusion
Scientificinconsistencieswarnoftheimportanceofintegra-
tive thinking and the biological benefit to humanity. We
propose that physiological functions based on consistent
science should be considered so that health, or biological
welfare,canbesustainedoverthelongterm.
Abbreviation
VDT:videodisplayterminal.
Competinginterests
Theauthorsdeclarethattheyhavenocompetinginterests.
Authors'contributions
YSconceivedandwrotethemanuscript.TKconceivedandhelpedtodraft
themanuscript.Bothauthorshavereadandapprovedthefinalmanuscript.
Figure2Symbolofaquietstate. Received:26August2012Accepted:22December2012
Published:15January2013
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doi:10.1186/1880-6805-32-1
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