Semiconductors: Synthesis, Properties and Applications

596 Pages·2019·29.845 MB·English

by  Martin I. Pech-Canul, Nuggehalli M. Ravindra

Martin I. Pech-Canul 
Editors
Nuggehalli M. Ravindra    
Semiconductors
Synthesis, Properties and Applications
Semiconductors
Martin I. Pech-Canul
Nuggehalli M. Ravindra
Editors
Semiconductors
Synthesis, Properties and Applications
123
Editors
Martin I.Pech-Canul NuggehalliM. Ravindra
CentrodeInvestigacióny deEstudios Department ofPhysics
Avanzadosdel Instituto Politécnico NewJersey Institute ofTechnology
Nacional—Unidad Saltillo—Ingeniería Newark, NJ, USA
Cerámica
RamosArizpe, Coahuila, Mexico
ISBN978-3-030-02169-6 ISBN978-3-030-02171-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02171-9
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2018957645
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Preface
It has been over two centuries since the term “semiconducting” was used by
Alessandro Volta in 1782. In 1833, Michael Faraday reported the decrease in
resistance with increase in temperature in silver sulfide. Similar results of copper
sulfide and a detailed analysis of the temperature dependence of the electrical
conductivityinAg SandCu SwerepublishedbyJohannWilhelmHittorfin1851.
2 2
This behavior of Ag S and Cu S was in contrast to metals in which resistance
2 2
increasedwithincreaseintemperature.Aroundthesameperiod,in1839,Alexander
Edmund Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect in an experiment in which
silverchloridewasplacedinanacidicsolutionandilluminatedwhileconnectedto
platinum electrodes. The first results of photoconductivity were reported by
Willoughby Smith in selenium in 1873. In 1874, Ferdinand Braun discovered the
semiconductor point-contact rectifier using a metal-galena junction.
Theyear2018isthecelebrationofthe160thbirthdayofJagadishChandraBose.
His patent on PbS point-contact rectifiers, in 1904, marked the beginning of lead
chalcogenide-based infrared detectors. It has been 140 years since Edwin Herbert
Hall discovered the deflection of charge carriers in solids under the influence of
magneticfieldsin1878.In1926,JuliusEdgarLilienfeldpatentedthefieldeffectin
semiconductors in a three-electrode amplifying device based on copper sulfide.
Quantum mechanics and its role in the theory of electronic semiconductors were
publishedbyAlanWilsonin1931.Thediscoveryofthep–njunctionandthesolar
cell by Russel Ohl, in 1941, was the beginning of a transformation in scientific
research in semiconductors. This led to the invention of the germanium bipolar
point-contacttransistorbyWilliamShockley,JohnBardeen,andWalterBrattainin
1947andthefirstintegratedcircuitbyJackKilby in1958.Today,semiconductors
have revolutionized the everyday lifestyle of people from across the world.
Semiconductorsareomnipresentandcontributetotheglobaleconomyonavery
large scale. Aeronautics, communications, computers, defense, energy, health,
instrumentation,andtransportationarejustafewoftheexamplesofapplicationsof
semiconductors.
v
vi Preface
It must be emphasized that semiconductors represent a sector of the global
economyinwhichthetimelagfrombasicresearchtoindustrypracticeisminimal.
This is due to the significant number of applications and the resulting market
economy. Along with the materials related issues, challenges such as wafer/device
scaling, wafer/device/circuit/systems integration, high speed/frequency, low power
requirements, packaging, Joule heating/thermal management, improvement in
yield, and cost to manufacture are being constantly addressed. The recent devel-
opments in 0D, 1D, and 2D materials, devices, and structures have contributed to
significant creativity in semiconductors.
In putting together this book, all aspects of semiconductors have been consid-
ered—fromfundamentalstoapplications.Itistheresultoftheunifiedeffortsofan
inter-institutional and interdisciplinary group of authors, whose research interests
coalesceintherealmofsemiconductors.Thebookcomprisestenchapters,covering
the fundamentals and synthesis/processing, the properties and current or potential
applications, emphasizing the processing–structure–property correlations, in con-
sonance with the “Central paradigm of materials science and engineering.” The
essence of the central paradigm is revisited, but within the perspective of sustain-
ability, in which the recycling/reusing aspects, incorporated within the materials
processing cycle, are suggested to apply to semiconductors. Although specialized
terminologies are used when appropriate and necessary, efforts have been made to
present the chapters in a scientific, technical, and comprehensible language to
non-specialized readers.
The coordinating authors are earnestly thankful to the editorial team, Ms. Anita
Lekhwani, Senior Editor, Ms. Faith Pilacik, Editorial Assistant, Mr. Brian Halm,
Project Coordinator, and Ms. Ania Levinson, formerly of Springer for their
wholehearted support and patience throughout the publication process. Likewise,
all contributing authors are gratefully acknowledged for their steadfast dedication
and perseverance, and to their corresponding universities or research institutions,
for their valuable support. Finally, our heartfelt gratitude to those individuals who
in one way or the other helped to finalize the book. We thank our colleagues who
provided valuable insights or suggested pertinent literature.
We hope that this book will help and serve the general readers, students, aca-
demicians, technologists, practitioners, and entrepreneurs in their work to address
the ever-growing evolution in semiconductors and their applications.
Ramos Arizpe, Coahuila, Mexico Martin I. Pech-Canul
Newark, NJ, USA Nuggehalli M. Ravindra
July 2018/August 2018
Contents
1 Semiconductor Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
P. Horley, P. J. Gonçalves Ribeiro, J. A. Aguilar Martínez
and V. J. Rocha Vieira
2 Processing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Barbara Cortese, Luciano Velardi, Ilaria Elena Palamà,
Stefania D’Amone, Eliana D’Amone, Gianvito de Iaco,
Diego Mangiullo and Giuseppe Gigli
3 Characterization Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Marla Berenice Hernández Hernández,
Mario Alberto García-Ramírez, Yaping Dan,
Josué A. Aguilar-Martínez, Bindu Krishnan and Sadasivan Shaji
4 Vanadium Oxides: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications. . . . . . . 127
Chiranjivi Lamsal and Nuggehalli M. Ravindra
5 Graphene: Properties, Synthesis, and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Sarang Muley and Nuggehalli M. Ravindra
6 Transition Metal Dichalcogenides Properties
and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Nuggehalli M. Ravindra, Weitao Tang and Sushant Rassay
7 Group II–VI Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Bindu Krishnan, Sadasivan Shaji, M. C. Acosta-Enríquez,
E. B. Acosta-Enríquez, R. Castillo-Ortega, MA. E. Zayas,
S. J. Castillo, Ilaria Elena Palamà, Eliana D’Amone,
Martin I. Pech-Canul, Stefania D’Amone and Barbara Cortese
8 Other Miscellaneous Semiconductors and Related Binary,
Ternary, and Quaternary Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Dongguo Chen and Nuggehalli M. Ravindra
vii
viii Contents
9 Organic Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Josefina Alvarado Rivera, Amanda Carrillo Castillo
and María de la Luz Mota González
10 Emerging Opportunities and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Martin I. Pech-Canul, Socorro Valdez Rodríguez, Luis A. González
and Nuggehalli M. Ravindra
Index .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 585
Introduction
Standing at the cutting edge in the science and technology of semiconductors is a
challenging task, not only by the plethora of topics to cover within the subject
matter at once but also by the fast-moving pace at which the advancements are
unfolded. The near ubiquity of semiconductors is perceived in all walks of life,
from mobile phones, home appliances, personal computers, to automotive, navi-
gation, aviation, and military equipment, as well as in medical diagnostic instru-
ments.Thesemiconductorindustryisperhapsthemostinfluentialdriveroftoday's
society. The fast-growing amount of information on the wide variety of topics is
due to the in-depth current investigations and to past publications in scientific
journals and specialized books or more general textbooks. Their invaluable use-
fulness is acknowledged.
In addition to covering the fundamentals in Chap. 1, this book addresses the
synthesis/processingaspects,theproperties,andcurrentorpotentialapplicationsof
a variety of existing and emerging semiconductor materials. And albeit one of the
purposes of this text is to provide the readers with most of the semiconductor
materials and their processing/fabrication routes, there might be some materials or
processes unintentionally omitted and others extensively addressed. An effort has
beenmade,nonetheless,toincludethemostrecentreferencesonthesubjectmatter.
Chapter1reviewsthecoretheoreticalconceptsofSolidStatePhysics,beginning
with a quantum mechanical description of the fundamental constituents of solid
state matter, namely, electrons and atoms and serves to lay the foundation to
adequately assimilate the essentials of semiconductor materials.
Chapter 2 is devoted to the processing techniques for bulk crystal growth and
thinfilms,includingepitaxialgrowthaswellaspolycrystallineandamorphousthin
films. A wide range of processing techniques and their variants are discussed,
including MBE, ALE, ELO, PECVD, LPCVD, CVD, and laser ablation. Specific
sectionsaredevotedtoself-assembly,waferpreparationmethods,ionimplantation,
and vacuum deposition techniques.
Chapter 3, Characterization Techniques, focuses on presenting the most com-
mon techniques that are used in semiconductor materials, namely, compositional
characteristics, structural aspects, and optical properties.
ix
x Introduction
Chapter 4 addresses the synthesis, properties, and applications of vanadium
oxides. These compounds undergo insulator-to-metal phase transition (IMT) ac-
companiedbystructuralchanges,inresponsetotheirextremesensitivitytoexternal
stimuli such as pressure, temperature, or doping. Unlike vanadium pentoxide
(V O ),vanadiumdioxide(VO )andvanadiumsesquioxide(V O )exhibitIMTin
2 5 2 2 3
their bulk phases. In order to illustrate their attractive applications, VO with x
x
equal to 1.8 has been chosen for the sensing element of the Honeywell
microbolometer structure.
In Chap. 5, Graphene—Properties, Synthesis, and Applications, the electronic,
optical, and thermoelectric properties of graphene and graphene nanoribbons, as a
functionofthenumberoflayers,doping,chirality,temperature,andlatticedefects,
are described. Some aspects related to synthesis and applications are presented.
Chapter 6 is devoted to transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs)—their
properties and applications. Since the discovery of graphene, 2D materials
including TMDCs represent, perhaps, the fastest growing area of research in
materialsscienceandengineering andcondensedmatterphysics.Inparticular,this
chapter focuses on the properties and applications of sulfides and selenides of
tungsten and molybdenum.
Chapter 7 deals comprehensively with group II–V semiconductors, involving
compoundsformedbygroupIIBmetallicelements(Cd,Zn,andHg)withgroupVI
non-metallic elements (O, S, Se, and Te). Due to its extraordinary optoelectronic
properties which have led to unique device applications in thin-film photovoltaics,
nanophotodetectors, and lasers, cadmium sulfide (CdS) has set the standard
requirements for material properties in its applications to solar cells. Zinc Oxide
(ZnO), another important II–VI semiconductor, has exceptionally good properties
which has led to wide applications in varactors, phosphors, sensors, and opto-
electronicdevices.ZincoxideistreatedinmoredetailinSect.7.2,recognizingitas
a biosafe key technological material. This has become the focal point in
nanoscience and nanotechnology in the fabrication of sensors, transducers and
catalysts, transparent electronics, ultraviolet (UV) light emitters, piezoelectric
devices, chemical sensors, and spin electronics (or spintronics). Semiconductor
devices made of HgTe and related binary, ternary, and quaternary compounds are
discussed in Sect. 7.3.
Chapter 8, Other Miscellaneous Semiconductors and Related Binary, Ternary,
andQuaternaryCompounds,discussestheelectronic,optical,andelastic/mechanical
properties of various semiconductor alloys. These materials have contributed sig-
nificantly to the development of Bandgap Engineering. The applications of these
semiconductoralloysincludesolarcells,solid-statelasers,detectors,LightEmitting
Diodes (LEDs), and Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits (OEICs).
Chapter 9, Organic Semiconductors, addresses one of the most promising
material classes for applications in electronics, optoelectronics, and flexible elec-
tronics. The processing encompasses vacuum deposition and solution deposition
techniques, with their respective variety of routes, including vacuum thermal
evaporation and laser deposition, for the former, and dip coating, spin coating,
printing, and spray coating for the latter.