Research Methods in Biomechanics

441 Pages·2013·32.399 MB·English

by  Gordon Robertson, Graham Caldwell, Joseph Hamill, Gary Kamen, Saunders Whittlesey

Research
Methods in
Biomechanics
SECOND EDITION
D. GORDON E. ROBERTSON
University of Ottawa
GRAHAM E. CALDWELL
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
JOSEPH HAMILL
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
GARY KAMEN
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
SAUNDERS N. WHITTLESEY
HUMAN KINETICS
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Robertson, D. Gordon E., 1950- author.
Research methods in biomechanics / D. Gordon E. Robertson, Graham E. Caldwell, Joseph Hamill, Gary Kamen, Saunders N.
Whittlesey. -- 2nd edition.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
I. Caldwell, Graham E., 1954- author. II. Hamill, Joseph, 1946- author. III. Kamen, Gary, author. IV. Whittlesey, Saunders N.,
author. V. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Biomechanics. 2. Research Design. WE 103]
QP303
612.7'6072--dc23
2013017879
ISBN-10: 0-7360-9340-0 (print)
ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-9340-8 (print)
Copyright © 2014, 2004 by D. Gordon E. Robertson, Graham E. Caldwell, Joseph Hamill, Gary Kamen, and Saunders N. Whittlesey
All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and recording, and in any
information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher.
The web addresses cited in this text were current as of May 1, 2013, unless otherwise noted.
Acquisitions Editors: Loarn D. Robertson, PhD, and Amy N. Tocco; Developmental Editor: Katherine Maurer; Assistant Edi-
tors: Susan Huls, Casey A. Gentis, and Elizabeth Evans; Copyeditor: Julie Anderson; Proofreader: Sarah Wiseman; Indexer:
Nancy Ball; Permissions Manager: Dalene Reeder; Graphic Designer: Joe Buck; Graphic Artist: Denise Lowry; Cover
Designer: Keith Blomberg; Cover Image: Courtesy of C-Motion, Inc.; Photographs (interior): Courtesy of the authors; Photo
Asset Manager: Laura Fitch; Photo Production Manager: Jason Allen; Art Manager: Kelly Hendren; Associate Art Man-
ager: Alan L. Wilborn; Art Style Development: Joanne Brummett; Illustrations: © Human Kinetics, unless otherwise noted;
Printer: Edwards Brothers Malloy
Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
The paper in this book is certified under a sustainable forestry program.
Human Kinetics
Website: www.HumanKinetics.com
United States: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61825-5076
800-747-4457
e-mail: [email protected]
Canada: Human Kinetics, 475 Devonshire Road Unit 100, Windsor, ON N8Y 2L5
800-465-7301 (in Canada only)
e-mail: [email protected]
Europe: Human Kinetics, 107 Bradford Road, Stanningley, Leeds LS28 6AT, United Kingdom
[phone]
e-mail: [email protected]
Australia: Human Kinetics, 57A Price Avenue, Lower Mitcham, South Australia 5062
08 8372 0999
e-mail: [email protected]
New Zealand: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box 80, Torrens Park, South Australia 5062
0800 222 062
e-mail: [email protected]
E5144
To our current and former students.

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Introduction Biomechanics Analysis Techniques: A Primer . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Gary Kamen
What Tools Are Needed in Biomechanics? ...............................1
Applications of the Principles of Biomechanics: An Example..................1
Numerical Accuracy and Significant Digits................................4
Summary.........................................................5
List of Abbreviations ................................................5
PART I KINEMATICS 7
1
Chapter Planar Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
D. Gordon E. Robertson and Graham E. Caldwell
Description of Position ..............................................9
Degrees of Freedom...............................................11
Kinematic Data Collection...........................................12
Linear Kinematics .................................................18
Angular Kinematics ................................................24
Summary........................................................32
Suggested Readings...............................................33
2
Chapter Three-Dimensional Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Joseph Hamill, W. Scott Selbie, and Thomas M. Kepple
Collection of Three-Dimensional Data..................................35
Coordinate Systems and Assumption of Rigid Segments ...................36
Transformations Between Coordinate Systems...........................37
Defining the Segment LCS for the Lower Extremity .......................38
Pose Estimation: Tracking the Segment LCS.............................45
Joint Angles .....................................................50
Joint Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration of Cardan Joint Angles........58
Summary........................................................59
Suggested Readings...............................................59
v
vi (cid:96) Contents
PART II KINETICS 61
3
Chapter Body Segment Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
D. Gordon E. Robertson
Methods for Measuring and Estimating Body Segment Parameters ...........63
Two-Dimensional (Planar) Computational Methods ........................69
Three-Dimensional (Spatial) Computational Methods ......................74
Summary........................................................78
Suggested Readings...............................................78
4
Chapter Forces and Their Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Graham E. Caldwell, D. Gordon E. Robertson, and Saunders N. Whittlesey
Force...........................................................79
Newton’s Laws ...................................................79
Free-Body Diagrams...............................................80
Types of Forces...................................................82
Moment of Force, or Torque .........................................84
Linear Impulse and Momentum .......................................85
Angular Impulse and Momentum......................................89
Measurement of Force .............................................92
Summary.......................................................108
Suggested Readings..............................................108
5
Chapter Two-Dimensional Inverse Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Saunders N. Whittlesey and D. Gordon E. Robertson
Planar Motion Analysis ............................................110
Numerical Formulation.............................................115
Human Joint Kinetics..............................................120
Applications.....................................................123
Summary.......................................................127
Suggested Readings..............................................129
6
Chapter Energy, Work, and Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
D. Gordon E. Robertson
Energy, Work, and the Laws of Thermodynamics ........................131
Conservation of Mechanical Energy ..................................133
Ergometry: Direct Methods.........................................135
Ergometry: Indirect Methods........................................136
Mechanical Efficiency .............................................147
Summary.......................................................148
Suggested Readings..............................................149
Contents (cid:95)(cid:3)vii
7
Chapter Three-Dimensional Kinetics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
W. Scott Selbie, Joseph Hamill, and Thomas M. Kepple
Segments and Link Models.........................................151
3-D Inverse Dynamics Analysis......................................152
Presentation of the Net Moment Data.................................164
Joint Power.....................................................168
Interpretation of Net Joint Moments ..................................169
Sources of Error in Three-Dimensional Calculations ......................175
Summary.......................................................175
Suggested Readings..............................................176
PART III MUSCLES, MODELS, AND MOVEMENT 177
8
Chapter Electromyographic Kinesiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
Gary Kamen
Physiological Origin of the Electromyographic Signal......................179
Recording and Acquiring the Electromyographic Signal....................182
Analyzing and Interpreting the Electromyographic Signal...................188
Applications for Electromyographic Techniques..........................193
Summary.......................................................201
Suggested Readings..............................................201
9
Chapter Muscle Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
Graham E. Caldwell
The Hill Muscle Model.............................................203
Muscle-Specific Hill Models ........................................216
Beyond the Hill Model.............................................223
Summary.......................................................229
Suggested Readings..............................................229
10
Chapter Computer Simulation of Human Movement. . . . . . . . . . . .233
Saunders N. Whittlesey and Joseph Hamill
Overview: Modeling as a Process....................................233
Why Simulate Human Movement?....................................235
General Procedure for Simulations ...................................236
Control Theory ..................................................242
Limitations of Computer Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Summary.......................................................245
Suggested Readings..............................................246
vviiiiii (cid:96)(cid:96) CCoonntteennttss
11
Chapter Musculoskeletal Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
Brian R. Umberger and Graham E. Caldwell
Musculoskeletal Models ...........................................247
Control Models..................................................256
Analysis Techniques ..............................................266
Summary.......................................................273
Suggested Readings..............................................275
PART IV FURTHER ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES 277
12
Chapter Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
Timothy R. Derrick
Characteristics of a Signal..........................................279
Fourier Transform ................................................281
Time-Dependent Fourier Transform...................................282
Sampling Theorem................................................282
Ensuring Circular Continuity ........................................285
Smoothing Data .................................................285
Summary.......................................................289
Suggested Readings..............................................290
13
Chapter Dynamical Systems Analysis of Coordination. . . . . . . . . .291
Richard E.A. van Emmerik, Ross H. Miller, and Joseph Hamill
Movement Coordination ...........................................291
Foundations for Coordination Analysis ................................296
Quantifying Coordination: Relative Phase Methods.......................298
Quantifying Coordination: Vector Coding ..............................310
Overview of Coordination Analysis Techniques..........................314
Summary.......................................................315
Suggested Readings..............................................315
14
Chapter Analysis of Biomechanical Waveform Data. . . . . . . . . . . .317
Kevin J. Deluzio, Andrew J. Harrison, Norma Coffey,
and Graham E. Caldwell
Biomechanical Waveform Data ......................................317
Principal Component Analysis.......................................319
Functional Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
Comparison of PCA and FDA .......................................336
Summary.......................................................336
Suggested Readings..............................................336
CCoonntteennttss (cid:95)(cid:95)(cid:3)(cid:3)iixx
Appendix A: International System of Units (Système International, SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339
Appendix B: Selected Factors for Converting Between Units of Measure . . . . . . . . . . .343
Appendix C: Basic Electronics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
Appendix D: Vectors and Scalars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .355
Appendix E: Matrices and Matrix Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .361
Appendix F: Numerical Integration of Double Pendulum Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .365
Appendix G: Derivation of Double Pendulum Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
Appendix H: Discrete Fourier Transform Subroutine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .373
Appendix I: Shannon’s Reconstruction Subroutine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375
Example Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
About the Authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
Additional Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428