Nano Optoelectronic Sensors and Devices: Nanophotonics from Design to Manufacturing

260 Pages·2011·6.626 MB·English

by  Ning Xi, King Lai

Nano-Optoelectronic
Sensors and Devices
Nanophotonics from Design to
Manufacturing
Edited by
Ning Xi
Michigan State University
King Wai Chiu Lai
Michigan State University
Amsterdam•Boston•Heidelberg•London•NewYork•Oxford
Paris•SanDiego•SanFrancisco•Singapore•Sydney•Tokyo
WilliamAndrewisanimprintofElsevier
WilliamAndrewisanimprintofElsevier
225WymanStreet,Waltham,02451,USA
TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UK
Firstedition2012
Copyright(cid:2)c 2012ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,
includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthe
publisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandarrangements
withorganizations,suchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatour
website:www.elsevier.com/permissions.
ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher(otherthanasmaybe
notedherein).
Notice
Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroadenourunderstanding,
changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary.
Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingandusingany
information,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbe
mindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility.
Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeanyliabilityforanyinjury
and/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoperationof
anymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress.
BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.
ISBN:978-1-4377-3471-3
ForinformationonallElsevierpublications
visitourwebsiteatwww.elsevierdirect.com
PrintedandboundinGreatBritain
12 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Preface
This book presents a comprehensive report on the research on nanosensors and -devices conducted
by the researchers in the Robotics and Automation Laboratory at Michigan State University and our
collaborators. The Robotics and Automation Laboratory was established after I joined the faculty
of Michigan State University in 1997. For the last decade, the research directions of the laboratory
havebeenexpandedfromtraditionalindustrialrobotstonanorobots.Afterwesuccessfullytestedour
nanoroboticsystemfornanomanipulationsandassembly,wewerelookingforopportunitiestodevelop
nanodevicestodemonstratethecapabilityofournewlydevelopednanoroboticsystem.In2004,Imet
Dr Harold Szu, US Army Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate (formerly with Office of
Naval Research), in a conference. We had a very interesting discussion on nanomanufacturing and
nanosensors. He inspired me to consider using nanorobots to manufacture nanowire-based infrared
detectors.Thishasledtomanyinterestingprojects.Overtheyears,Haroldhasprovideduswithmuch
valuableadvice.Iwishtoexpressmydeepappreciationforhisinspirationandassistance.
Dr King Wai Chiu Lai was my first research associate working on the nanodevices. He played
important roles in many of the research efforts reported in the book. King, as my coeditor, has put
a lot of effort into this book. The completion of this book would have not been possible without his
tireless and careful work. In addition, all of the contributors of this book are my former or current
PhDstudents,postdoctoralresearchassociates,andcollaborators.Iwishtothankallofthemfortheir
contributionstothisbook.
Lastbutnotleast,IexpressmysincerethankstoOfficeofNavalResearch,inparticularDrsJames
Buss,KeithKrapels,JamesWaterman,andMichaelDuncan,andtheNationalScienceFoundationfor
providingfinancialsupportfortheresearcheffortsreportedinthisbook.
NingXi
xi
Contents
Preface.................................................................................................. xi
Acknowledgments...................................................................................... xiii
AbouttheEditors....................................................................................... xv
ListofContributers..................................................................................... xvii
CHAPTER 1 Introduction .......................................................................... 1
1.1 Overview............................................................................. 1
1.2 ImpactofNanomaterials ............................................................ 2
1.3 ChallengesandDifficultiesinManufacturingNanomaterials-BasedDevices.... 4
1.3.1 RoleofMicrofluidics......................................................... 5
1.3.2 RoleofRoboticNanoassembly .............................................. 6
1.4 Summary............................................................................. 6
References................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER 2 NanomaterialsProcessingforDeviceManufacturing............................. 11
2.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 11
2.2 CharacteristicsofCarbonNanotubes............................................... 13
2.3 ClassificationofCarbonNanotubesusingMicrofluidics.......................... 14
2.3.1 DielectrophoreticPhenomenononCNTs.................................... 16
2.3.2 ExperimentalResults:SeparationofSemiconductingCNTs............... 19
2.4 DepositionofCNTsbyMicroroboticWorkstation................................. 21
2.5 Summary............................................................................. 24
References................................................................................. 25
CHAPTER 3 DesignandGenerationofDielectrophoreticForcesforManipulating
CarbonNanotubes.................................................................... 29
3.1 Overview............................................................................. 29
3.2 DielectrophoreticForceModeling.................................................. 30
3.2.1 ModelingofElectrorotationforNanomanipulation......................... 34
3.2.2 DynamicModelingofRotationalMotionofCarbonNanotubesfor
IntelligentManufacturingofCNT-BasedDevices.......................... 35
3.2.3 DynamicEffectofFluidMediumonNanoParticlesby
Dielectrophoresis............................................................. 36
3.3 TheoryforMicroelectrodeandElectricFieldDesignforCarbonNanotube
Applications......................................................................... 37
3.3.1 MicroelectrodeDesign ....................................................... 37
3.3.2 TheoryforMicroelectrodeDesign........................................... 38
v
vi Contents
3.4 ElectricFieldDesign ................................................................ 39
3.5 CarbonNanotubesApplication-SimulationResults ............................... 40
3.5.1 DielectrophoreticForce:SimulationResults................................ 40
3.5.2 Electrorotation(Torque):SimulationResults ............................... 45
3.5.3 RotationalMotionofCarbonNanotubes:SimulationResults.............. 45
3.6 Summary............................................................................. 49
References................................................................................. 49
CHAPTER 4 AtomicForceMicroscope-BasedNanoroboticSystemforNanoassembly ...... 51
4.1 IntroductiontoAFMandNanomanipulation....................................... 51
4.1.1 AFM’sBasicPrinciple ....................................................... 52
4.1.2 ImagingModeofAFM....................................................... 53
4.1.3 AFM-BasedNanomanipulation.............................................. 55
4.2 AFM-BasedAugmentedRealitySystem........................................... 56
4.2.1 Principlefor3DNanoforceFeedback ....................................... 56
4.2.2 PrincipleforReal-TimeVisualFeedbackGeneration ...................... 59
4.2.3 ExperimentalTestingandDiscussion........................................ 59
4.3 AugmentedRealitySystemEnhancedbyLocalScan ............................. 62
4.3.1 LocalScanMechanismforNanoparticle.................................... 62
4.3.2 LocalScanMechanismforNanorod......................................... 64
4.3.3 NanomanipulationwithLocalEnhancedAugmented
RealitySystem................................................................ 66
4.4 CAD-GuidedAutomatedNanoassembly........................................... 71
4.5 ModelingofNanoenvironments .................................................... 72
4.6 AutomatedManipulationofCNT................................................... 74
4.7 Summary............................................................................. 78
References................................................................................. 78
CHAPTER 5 On-ChipBandGapEngineeringofCarbonNanotubes............................. 81
5.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 81
5.2 QuantumElectronTransportModel................................................ 82
5.2.1 NonequilibriumGreen’sFunctions .......................................... 82
5.2.2 Poisson’sEquationandSelf-ConsistentAlgorithm......................... 84
5.3 ElectricalBreakdownControllerofaCNT ........................................ 85
5.3.1 ExtendedKalmanFilterforFaultDetection................................. 85
5.4 EffectsofCNTBreakdown ......................................................... 87
5.4.1 Current-VoltageCharacteristics.............................................. 87
5.4.2 InfraredResponses............................................................ 89
5.5 Summary............................................................................. 91
References................................................................................. 91
Contents vii
CHAPTER 6 PackagingProcessesforCarbonNanotube-BasedDevices...................... 93
6.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 93
6.2 ThermalAnnealingofCarbonNanotubes.......................................... 94
6.3 ElectricalandOpticalResponsesofCarbonNanotubesAfterThermal
Annealing............................................................................ 96
6.4 ParyleneThinFilmPackaging...................................................... 100
6.5 ElectricalandOpticalStabilityoftheCNT-BasedDevicesAfter
Packaging............................................................................ 101
6.6 Summary............................................................................. 103
References................................................................................. 104
CHAPTER 7 CarbonNanotubeSchottkyPhotodiodes........................................... 107
7.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 107
7.2 ReviewofCNTPhotodiodes........................................................ 108
7.3 DesignofCNTSchottkyPhotodiodes.............................................. 111
7.4 SymmetricSchottkyPhotodiodes................................................... 112
7.5 AsymmetricSchottkyPhotodiodes................................................. 117
7.6 Summary............................................................................. 121
References................................................................................. 121
CHAPTER 8 CarbonNanotubeField-EffectTransistor-BasedPhotodetectors................. 125
8.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 125
8.2 Back-GateAu–CNT–AuTransistors................................................ 127
8.3 Back-GateAg–CNT–AgTransistors................................................ 130
8.4 Back-GateAu–CNT–AgTransistors................................................ 132
8.5 Middle-GateTransistors............................................................. 136
8.6 MultigateTransistors................................................................ 139
8.7 DetectorArrayUsingCNT-BasedTransistors ..................................... 146
8.8 Summary............................................................................. 147
References................................................................................. 148
CHAPTER 9 NanoantennasonNanowire-BasedOpticalSensors .............................. 151
9.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 151
9.2 NanoantennaDesignConsiderationforIRSensors................................ 152
9.2.1 OpticalNanoantennasCombinedwithCNT-BasedIRSensors............ 152
9.3 TheoreticalAnalysis:NanoantennaNear-FieldEffect............................. 153
9.4 FabricationofNanoSensorCombinedwithNanoantenna........................ 154
9.5 PhotocurrentMeasurementonNanoSensorCombinedwithNanoantenna ...... 157
9.6 Summary............................................................................. 158
References................................................................................. 160
viii Contents
CHAPTER 10 DesignofPhotonicCrystalWaveguides.......................................... 163
10.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 163
10.2 ReviewofthePhotonicCrystal ................................................... 164
10.3 PrincipleforPhotonicCrystal..................................................... 165
10.4 PhototonicBandGapofPhotonicCrystal........................................ 166
10.4.1 EffectfromDielectricConstants.......................................... 167
10.4.2 EffectfromDifferentStructures........................................... 168
10.5 PhotonicCrystalCavity............................................................ 173
10.5.1 BasicDesignofPhotonicCrystalDefect................................. 173
10.5.2 DefectfromDielectricConstants ......................................... 174
10.5.3 DefectfromDielectricSize................................................ 176
10.5.4 EffectfromLatticeNumber............................................... 177
10.6 DesignandExperimentalResultsofPhotonicCrystalCavity................... 178
10.6.1 Design ...................................................................... 178
10.6.2 PhotoresponsesofCNT-BasedIRSensorswithPhotonicCrystal
Cavities..................................................................... 179
10.6.3 PhotocurrentMappingoftheCNT-BasedIRSensorswithPhotonic
CrystalCavities............................................................ 180
10.7 Summary ........................................................................... 181
References ................................................................................ 182
CHAPTER 11 OrganicSolarCellsEnhancedbyCarbonNanotubes ........................... 183
11.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 183
11.2 ApplicationofCarbonNanotubesinOrganicSolarCells ....................... 184
11.3 FabricationofCarbonNanotube-EnhancedOrganicSolarCells................ 185
11.4 PerformanceAnalysisofOSCsEnhancedbyCNTs............................. 185
11.4.1 J-VofSWCNTs-EnhancedOSCsUnderIllumination .................. 186
11.4.2 J-VofSWCNTs-EnhancedOSCsinDark................................ 190
11.5 ElectricalRoleofSWCNTsinOSCs............................................. 193
11.6 Summary ........................................................................... 197
References ................................................................................ 197
CHAPTER 12 DevelopmentofOpticalSensorsUsingGraphene............................... 199
12.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 199
12.2 FabricationofGraphene-BasedDevices.......................................... 200
12.3 DielectrophoreticEffectonDifferentGrapheneFlakes.......................... 202
12.4 ElectricalandOpticalBehaviorsofVariousGraphene-BasedDevices......... 203
12.5 Summary ........................................................................... 206
References ................................................................................ 206
Contents ix
CHAPTER 13 IndiumAntimonide(InSb)Nanowire-BasedPhotodetectors.................... 209
13.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 209
13.2 GrowthofInSbNanowires........................................................ 214
13.3 PhotodetectorsUsingSingleInSbNanowires.................................... 216
13.3.1 SymmetricInSbNanowirePhotodetectors ............................... 216
13.3.2 AsymmetricInSbNanowirePhotodetectors.............................. 218
13.4 Summary ........................................................................... 223
References ................................................................................ 223
CHAPTER 14 CarbonNanotube-BasedInfraredCameraUsingCompressiveSensing ....... 225
14.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 225
14.2 TheoreticalFoundationofCompressiveSensing................................. 228
14.2.1 GeneralIdea................................................................ 229
14.2.2 Sparsity..................................................................... 229
14.2.3 RestrictedIsometryProperty.............................................. 230
14.2.4 RandomMatrix ............................................................ 231
14.2.5 CompressiveSensingApplications ....................................... 231
14.3 CompressiveSensingforSingle-PixelPhotodetectors........................... 231
14.3.1 SystemArchitecture ....................................................... 231
14.3.2 MeasurementMatrix....................................................... 233
14.3.3 DataSamplingandImageReconstructionAlgorithm.................... 234
14.4 ExperimentalSetupandResults................................................... 236
14.4.1 StaticMeasurement........................................................ 236
14.4.2 DynamicObservation...................................................... 237
14.4.3 PerformanceAnalysis...................................................... 237
14.5 SummaryandPerspectives........................................................ 240
References ................................................................................ 241
Index .................................................................................................... 245
CHAPTER
1
Introduction
KingWaiChiuLaiandNingXi
DepartmentofElectricalandComputerEngineering,
MichiganStateUniversity,Michigan
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Overview...................................................................................................... 1
1.2 ImpactofNanomaterials .................................................................................... 2
1.3 ChallengesandDifficultiesinManufacturingNanomaterials-BasedDevices............................ 4
1.3.1 RoleofMicrofluidics...................................................................... 5
1.3.2 RoleofRoboticNanoassembly............................................................ 6
1.4 Summary...................................................................................................... 6
References......................................................................................................... 7
1.1 OVERVIEW
Nanomaterialscanbeusedasnovelsensingelementsandtheyallowustobuilddevicesmuchsmaller
thanbefore.Researchintonanomaterialsandnanomanufacturingistremendouslyimportant,because
mostnanoscalematerialsandsystemsaredifferentfromcurrentmacro-andmicrosystems.Thisbook
coversarangeofmattersregardingthedevelopmentofnano-optoelectronicdevices.
Optoelectronicsplaysasignificantroleinthesemiconductorindustry,andsilicon-basedoptoelec-
tronic devices are now so ubiquitous in modern society. The range of applications for optoelectronic
devices like light-emitting diodes (LEDs), laser, optical sensors, and solar cells continues to grow,
resultinginanewgenerationofelectronicsproductssuchascomputerdisplays,flatscreenTVs,high-
speedcommunicationdevices,etc.Whilesilicon-baseddevicesandelectronicshavebeendeveloped
for 30 years, scaling down and further improving the performance of current silicon-based devices
are still very challenging. Therefore, new technologies and materials have to be developed to meet
these challenges. In 1971, the feature widths of semiconductor manufacturing processes were about
10μm. Nowadays the smallest feature size of silicon-based devices is about 32nm. Highly special-
ized techniques, facilities, and equipment are essential to further reduce the size of conventional
optoelectronicdevices.Withtherecentadvanceinnanotechnology,variouskindsofnovelnanomate-
rialshavebeenintroduced.Thesematerialsoffersuperiorquantumoptical,electrical,andmechanical
effects due to their sizes (nanometer scale), which opens up the possibility to replace silicon for
NingXi&KingWaiChiuLai(eds):Nano-OptoelectronicSensorsandDevices.DOI:10.1016/B978-1-4377-3471-3.00001-0 1
Copyright(cid:2)c 2012ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
2 CHAPTER 1 Introduction
high-performanceoptoelectronicdevices.Sincethenanomaterialsexistusuallyintheformofpowders
or fluids, a systematic approach to make use of different nanomaterials for optoelectronic devices is
necessary.
Nanomanufacturing refers to a series of fabrication processes to build nanoscale structures and
devices using nanomaterials. It also refers to the development of some technologies or specialized
equipment to handle or process nanomaterials. Since 2000, the term nanomanufacturing has been
widelyusedinacademicsocietiesandworldwidegovernmentagencies,suchastheInstituteofElectri-
calandElectronicsEngineers(IEEE),U.S.NationalNanotechnologyInitiative(NNI),andEuropean
TechnologyPlatform:Micro-andNanoManufacturing(MINAM).
The contents of the book start with discussing the fundamental structure of nanodevices as well
asthesignificanceofnanomaterialsandnanostructuretothephotonicdevices.Afterward,aseriesof
processes for manufacturing nanodevices will be given, attempting to meet the challenges and dif-
ficulties of design and fabrication using nanomaterials. Classification of nanomaterials using micro
fluidicsanddielectrophoresisisdescribedinChapter2,followingbyadetaileddiscussioninChapter
3.Chapter4introducesnanoroboticmanipulationandassemblymethods.Aprecisenanoassemblycan
beachievedbyanatomicforcemicroscopy-basednanoroboticsystem,whicharecapableofmanipu-
latingnanomaterialefficiently.Becausebandgapofsemiconductingmaterialisanimportantproperty
for many optoelectronic applications, such as optical detectors and solar cells, band gap engineering
of nanomaterials is given in Chapter 5. The nanomanufacturing processes culminates in Chapter 6
withthedevelopmentofthermalannealingprocessandpackagingprocesstomaintainthestabilityand
reliabilityofthenanodevices.
Developmentofspecificnanodevicesisdiscussedinthenextsixchapters(seeFigure1.1).InChap-
ter7,designandperformanceofcarbonnanotube-basedSchottkyphotodiodesispresented.Chapter8
describes improvement of the photodiodes using field effect transistors. Field enhancement and con-
finementofnanoantennasandphotoniccrystalarereportedinChapters9and10,respectively.Apart
from carbon nanotube-based photodiode, more other optoelectronic devices are discussed as the fol-
lowing: solar cells (Chapter 11), graphene-based optical sensors (Chapter 12), and nanowire-based
infrareddetectors(Chapter13).Finally,thedevelopmentofinfraredimagingusingcarbonnanotubes
isgiveninChapter14.
1.2 IMPACT OF NANOMATERIALS
Nanomaterialsarelikelycandidatestocreatebreakthroughsinthefieldofnano-optoelectronics.When
thesizeofamaterialreducestothenanometerrange,quantumeffectsbecomeverypronounced,which
cannotbefoundatmacroscopicandmicroscopiclevel.Asaresult,thebehaviorofthesenanomaterials
isverydifferentfromotherconventionalmaterials.Overthelast20years,avarietyofnanomaterials
have been found and developed, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, quantum dots, and
quantumwellsandmanydifferentkindsofmetalnanowires.
TheCNTisoneofthemostwell-knownnanomaterials,whichhasbeenstudiedextensivelyinthe
last couple of decades after its discovery in early 1990s [1]. CNT is a hollow cylindrical structure
that has unique and attractive one-dimensional (1D) properties. The diameter of a single CNT is in
therangeofnanometers,andCNTscanrangeinlengthfromatypical10μmtoaslongas18cm[2].