Table Of ContentKnowledge
and Systems
Science
Enabling Systemic
Knowledge Synthesis
© 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Knowledge
and Systems
Science
Enabling Systemic
Knowledge Synthesis
Yoshiteru Nakamori
© 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press
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Contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi
1 IssuesofSystemicSynthesis 1
1.1 YinandYang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Difficultyinobserving environments . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Difficultyinselecting information . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 Difficultyincreating knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 DiscussionofSystemicThinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 ComplexityinThoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.1 Opinionsinthescientific-actual front . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.2 Opinionsinthesocial-relational front . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.3 Opinionsinthecognitive-mental front . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.4 Mainopinions andtaskdiagram . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 DiscussionofSystemicSynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 AppendixonOpinionOrganizing Methods. . . . . . . . . . 19
1.5.1 Brainstorming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.5.2 TheDelphimethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.3 Affinitydiagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2 SystemsApproaches 23
2.1 ComplexityandSystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Methodological Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.1 Cybernetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.2 Generalsystemstheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.3 Softsystemsthinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3 SoftSystemsMethodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.1 Processofsoftsystemsmethodology . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.2 Softsystemsmethodology: Exercise . . . . . . . . . 38
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2.4 OrientalSystemsMethodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4.1 Shinayakana SystemsApproach . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4.2 WSRSystemsApproach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5 HintsforQuestions andExercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6 AppendixonSystemsApproaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.6.1 Organizational cybernetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.6.2 Criticalsystemsheuristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.6.3 Postmodernsystemsthinking . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.6.4 Totalsystemsintervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3 AnIntegratedSystemsApproach 61
3.1 PrinciplesofIntegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2 Intercultural Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.1 Incommensurability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.2 OccidentalandOrientalcultures . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.2.3 Discussionofintercultural understanding . . . . . . 68
3.3 AnInformedSystemsApproach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4 AKnowledgeIntegration System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.4.1 Thei-System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.4.2 Discussionofcharacteristics ofthei-System . . . . 74
3.4.3 Typesofintegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.5 Application toTechnology Archiving . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.5.1 Knowledgecollection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.5.2 Knowledgearchiving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.6 Application toTechnology Roadmapping . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.7 AppendixonSystemsTechniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.7.1 TheAnalyticalHierarchyProcess . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.7.2 TheInterpretive StructuralModeling . . . . . . . . 92
4 MathematicalInformationAggregation 99
4.1 ComplexityinDecisionMaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.2 DataCollection andScreening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.2.1 Evaluationexperiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.2.2 Datascreening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.2.3 Mathematicaldatadescription . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.2.4 Datamatrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.3 DegreeofFitbetweenRequestsandProducts . . . . . . . . 110
4.3.1 Statisticaldataprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.3.2 Probabilistic dataprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.3.3 Fuzzy-settheoretical dataprocessing . . . . . . . . 118
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4.3.4 Directmodeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.4 Information Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.4.1 Non-additivemeasures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.4.2 OrderedWeightedAveraging(OWA)operators . . . 127
4.4.3 Prioritizedmax–minoperators . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.5 AnswerstoQuestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.6 Application ofSpecialized Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5 TheEmergenceofKnowledgeScience 143
5.1 KnowledgeRevolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.1.1 Thevalueofknowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.1.2 Information andknowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.1.3 Knowledgemanagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.1.4 Tacitandexplicitknowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.1.5 SECIspiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.2 EpistemesintheKnowledge-Based Society . . . . . . . . . 149
5.2.1 Towardestablishing anewepisteme . . . . . . . . . 150
5.2.2 SchoolofKnowledgeScience . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.3 Approaches toKnowledgeScience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.3.1 Approachesfrominformation science . . . . . . . . 153
5.3.2 Approachesfrommanagementscience . . . . . . . 155
5.3.3 Anapproach fromsystemsscience . . . . . . . . . . 157
6 KnowledgeCreationModels 159
6.1 Organizational KnowledgeCreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.1.1 Bottom-up Socialization, Externalization, Combina-
tion,Internalization (SECI)spiral . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.1.2 Top-down Objectives, Process, Expansion, Closure
(OPEC)spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.2 AcademicKnowledgeCreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.2.1 Inter-subjective Enlightenment, Debate, Immersion,
Selection(EDIS)spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.2.2 Experimental Enlightenment, Experiment, Interpre-
tation,Selection(EEIS)spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.2.3 DoubleEDIS-EEISspiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.2.4 Hermeneutic Enlightenment, Analysis, Immersion,
Reflection(EAIR)spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.2.5 Triplehelixmodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.3 Application toAcademicResearchEvaluation . . . . . . . . 172
6.4 KnowledgeCreationModeling: Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . 177
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7 KnowledgeSynthesisorConstruction 179
7.1 Sociological Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.1.1 Structurecomplexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7.1.2 Agencycomplexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.1.3 Actioncomplexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
7.1.4 Universalityofthei-System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.2 Application ofInterdisciplinary Integration . . . . . . . . . 192
7.2.1 Scientific-actual front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.2.2 Social-relational front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7.2.3 Cognitive-mental front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.2.4 Interdisciplinary knowledge synthesis . . . . . . . . 199
7.3 Thei-System:Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.4 AppendixonRiskAnalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.5 AppendixonCategoricalClustering Methods . . . . . . . . 202
8 KnowledgeJustification 205
8.1 KnowledgeDiscoveryandJustification . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.2 Philosophical Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
8.2.1 Paradigmatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.2.2 Falsificationism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.2.3 Postmodernsubjectivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
8.3 DiscussionandExercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.3.1 Generalspiralofknowledge creation . . . . . . . . 211
8.3.2 Episteme:exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
8.4 TheoryofKnowledgeConstruction Systems . . . . . . . . . 213
8.4.1 Fundamentalpartsofthetheory . . . . . . . . . . . 214
8.4.2 Evolutionary constructive objectivism . . . . . . . . 214
8.5 Application ofIntercultural Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
8.6 FinalExercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
References 221
Index 231
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Preface
It is said that new knowledge is created by the interaction between explicit
andtacitknowledge. However,thisisnotanaturally occurring process. New
knowledge emerges as a result of the fusion of high-quality information and
knowledge in the brain. But this is not necessarily a process that automat-
ically happens. Effort is needed for systemic knowledge synthesis to create
andjustifynewknowledge.
How can we synthesize various pieces of knowledge systemically? This
book tries to answer this question by integrating the ideas in the fields of
systems science and knowledge science. Why systems science? Because it
originatedasanacademicdisciplineforsolvingcomplexproblemsbysynthe-
sizing various pieces of knowledge. Therefore, in Chapter 1 we will discuss
someoftheissuesofsystemicknowledge synthesis.
Why systemic? Because the whole is not just acollection of parts, but is
more than that (Aristotle, 384-322 BC). Analytical methods cannot explain
such a phenomenon. In Chapter 2, we will look at systemic synthesis by ap-
plying twosystems methodologies, both ofwhichemphasize theimportance
ofthehumandimensioninproblemsolving.
However,thereisaparadox inthatsystemsscience, whichshouldbein-
terdisciplinary byitsverydefinition, suffersfromadisciplinary splitintothe
softandhardsystemsapproaches.Thissituationmustbeimprovedifsystems
science is to define its mission as the synthesis of diversified information,
knowledge, opinions, orvalues.
For this purpose, Chapter 3 will introduce a new integrated systems ap-
proach called the Informed Systems Approach. As its specific methodology,
a knowledge integration model called the i-System (knowledge pentagram)
will be introduced. This consists of five dimensions for collecting and syn-
thesizing distributed andtacitknowledge.
The Informed Systems Approach attempts to integrate soft and hard sys-
tems approaches, rather than setting them against each other. It provides for
abetter understanding between EastandWest, instead ofassuming that they
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x PREFACE
will never meet, and creates new knowledge based on interdisciplinary, or
even intercultural integration of knowledge. This idea will be a precursor to
the later chapters on knowledge science. Prior to that, in Chapter 4, some
mathematical information aggregation techniques will be introduced, which
areusefulwhenlookingatthescientificdimension ofthei-System.
Amajorsocialchangeoftheearlytwenty-firstcenturyhasbeencalledthe
knowledge revolution. Knowledge science has attracted attention as one of
thedrivingforcesofthisnewsociety. Itishopedthatwecandispelthesense
of inertia in the integration of knowledge by developing this new discipline.
The second half of this book is devoted to the fusion of systems science and
knowledge science in order to achieve systemic integration of knowledge. In
Chapter5,wewillprovideanoverviewofsomeoftheconceptsinknowledge
science andseveralapproaches toknowledge science.
The organizational knowledge creation theory provides a rational recipe
forgenerating newknowledge, usingirrational, orevenarational, abilities of
thehumanmindandculturalfeaturesoftheEast.Wewilldiscuss,inChapter
6,severalknowledgecreationmodelsthathavebeendevelopedfororganiza-
tionalaswellasacademicknowledge creation.
Knowledge is constructed and consumed by people in organizations and
societies. From this observation, it is clear that no generic model of knowl-
edge is complete without sociological arguments. In seeking a sociolog-
ical underpinning, Chapter 7 will draw upon the structure-agency-action
paradigm, inordertoconsiderasociological interpretation ofthei-System.
Historically, therehavebeentwomainschoolsofthinking onknowledge
creation. Theperspective ofgrouping isthekeydistinction between thecon-
textofknowledge discovery andthecontext ofknowledge justification. How-
ever, a third approach is required to make knowledge science an academic
discipline. With this in mind, in Chapter 8 we will consider how to justify
knowledge, and summarize a theory of knowledge synthesis (construction)
systems.
The science of knowledge science is not science in the narrow sense. It
is important to acquire a systemic view through trained intuition, and using
methodsofjustifyingnewknowledgewithoutsimplyrelyingonthescientific
methodinthenarrowsense.
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Acknowledgments
FirstofallImustconveymythankstothosepeoplewhogavemethechance
to work on such a grand project to create the new discipline of knowledge
science. In particular, I have received tremendous support from Professor
Shimemura, theformerpresident oftheJapan Advanced Institute ofScience
andTechnology,andProfessorNonaka,thefirstdeanoftheSchoolofKnowl-
edge Science. Without their direction, Iwouldnot have advanced very farin
termsofdeveloping knowledge science.
Ihavebeenguidedbytheschoolregulation:Withtheviewpointofknowl-
edgecreationasapracticeofnature,individuals, organizations, andsociety,
knowledgescienceattemptstoestablishauniteddisciplineofhumanitiesand
sciences. Theschoolundertakes educationandresearchtoexplorethemech-
anisms ofknowledge creation, accumulation andutilization, under anexcel-
lenteducation-research environment.Italsonurturesresearchersandexperi-
encedprofessionalswhohaveadvancedknowledgeandapplicationcapabili-
tiestoleadtheknowledgesociety,aswellasbroadperspectivesandadequate
judgment, andadvanced communication abilities.
Next, I would like to thank those who have supported my project from
overseas.Alittleaftertheschoolstartedin1998,Iorganizedaninternational
symposium on Knowledge and Systems Science, which was held in 2000,
andinvitedmanyprominentsystemsscientists.Myintentionwastoestablish
a new discipline, knowledge science, based on systems science, which is an
academic field with a long history. Knowledge science is interdisciplinarity,
asissystemsscience.
Since then we have been organizing this international symposium every
year, mostly in Asia, and we started publishing the International Journal of
KnowledgeandSystemsSciencein2004.Itscurrentversionisnowpublished
byIGIGlobal.
I wish to thank the following scientists, from among many international
contributors,fortheirvaluablesupport:ProfessorJifaCu,theInstituteofSys-
temsScienceoftheChinese AcademyofSciences, China;Professor Zhong-
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