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IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL PDF

401 Pages·2012·57.548 MB·English
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STANDARD LEVEL SL S L Environmental Environmental B A P C Systems and Societies CE AA L Systems and AR US R O E AN Societies DEVELOPED SPECIFICALLY FOR THE T P E A R S O N E BACCALAUREATE IB DIPLOMA Interactive P E A R S O N e-book also Pearson Baccalaureate Environmental Systems and Societies SE BACCALAUREATE available Andrew Davis teaches at St Edward’s School, is a comprehensive textbook, covering all seven topics from the yn course, along with advice on Internal Assessment, the Extended Oxford, where he introduced the IB ESS sv course and is the Head of Environmental ti Essay, and links to Theory of Knowledge. It will help you to er Science. Andrew worked in South East Asia mo prepare thoroughly and methodically for your examinations. for 10 years as part of the Royal Society’s n sm Rainforest Research Programme, examining a • Written by experienced IB teachers. the effects of rainforest disturbance on e n n • Detailed diagrams and photographs help to explain key insect communities. He has published many d t concepts. articles on his insect work and maintains a S an active interest in tropical ecology and l • Practice questions from past examination papers help you o conservation. with exam preparation. c i • Clear links to Theory of Knowledge throughout. Garrett Nagle has taught at St Edward’s e • Provides guidance on Internal Assessment and the Extended School Oxford since 1986. He has been ti e an IB examiner and moderator since 2004 Essay. s and has been involved in over 50 textbooks • Written to give you an international and transdisciplinary and numerous articles. He is currently an perspective. D examiner, team leader, question setter, and E V • Additional online materials to support and extend your E workshop leader on IB related topics, as well L O studies. as an Assistant Principal Examiner. He was PE I D • With integrated online learning resources at Head of Geography at St. Edward’s School B S P www.pearsonbacconline.com, to support and extend study. from 1988-2001 and is Chairman of the D ECI Oxford Geographical Association. I FIC P A There are many more titles in the Pearson Baccalaureate series. L LL Y Visit www.pearsonbaccalaureate.com for a complete list. O FO M R T A H E www.pearsonbaccalaureate.com ANDREW DAVIS GARRETT NAGLE With integrated online learning resources! Visit www.pearsonbacconline.com CVR_ESSSL_SB_IBD_2630_CVR.indd 1 05/09/2012 14:25 P E A R S O N BACCALAUREATE Environmental Systems and Societies ANdREw dAviS gARRETT NAgLE 00_Prelims.indd 1 05/09/2012 14:07 Pearson Education Limited is a company incorporated in England and Wales, having its registered office at Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex, CM20 2JE. Registered company number: 872828. www.pearsonbaccalaureate.com Pearson is a registered trademark of Pearson Education Limited. Text © Pearson Education Limited 2010 First published 2010, ebook edition 2012 13 12 11 10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN print book 978 0 435032 63 0 ISBN ebook 978 1 447938 50 7 Copyright notice All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means (including storing it in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright owner, except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS (www.cla.co.uk). Applications for the copyright owner’s written permission should be addressed to the publisher. Edited by Penelope Lyons Designed by Tony Richardson Typeset by TechType Original illustrations © Pearson Education Limited 2010 Illustrated by Oxford Designers & Illustrators and TechType Cover design by Tony Richardson Picture research by Joanne Forrest Smith Cover photo © Digital Vision Printed in Italy by Rotolito Lombarda Acknowledgements The authors and publisher would like to thank the following individuals and organisations for permission to reproduce photographs: (Key: b – bottom; c – centre; l – left; r – right; t – top) Alamy Images: Chris Hellier 203, Dinodia Images 151, Martin Shields 311tr, Photos 12 292, RIA Novosti 291b, Terry Fincher Photo Int 224; Andrew J Davis: 202, 209, 210, 305tl, 305tr; Bridgeman Art Library Ltd: 100t, 196, Musée des Antiquites Nationales, St. Germain-en-Laye, France / Lauros / Giraudon 99; CITES: 211; Corbis: 100c, Aas, Erlend / epa 286, Andy Rain / epa 177b, Bettmann 290t, Charles & Josette Lenars 204, Dlillc 180c, Elmer Frederick Fischer 200, Enzo & Paolo Ragazzini 311tl, Frans Lanting 195cr, G. Bowater 118, Galen Rowell 183, Hashimoto Noboru / Sygma 193, Hubert Stadler 195tl, Hulton–Deutsch Collection 177cr, Image Source 198, 201, Image Source 198, 201, James Marshall 141, Kevin Schafer 213, Made Nagi / epa 291t, Marcelo Del Pozo / Reuters 197, Michael & Patricia Fogden 199, Michael S. Yamashita 181, Miroslaw Tremebcki / PAP 295c, Natural Selection David Ponton / Design Pics 180bc, Reuters 290b, Richard Hamilton Smith 186c, Rungroj Yongrit / epa 295tc, Stephanie Maze 70b, Tom Bean 186b, Visuals Unlimited 195cl, Warren Jacobi 195b; DFO MPO: 233, 234; Dreamstime.com: 315t, Dvmsimages 315br, Gnup 300, Madartists / Dreamstime.com 288; Fearless Threads Passion T’s; www.fearlessthreads.com: 315bl; FLPA Images of Nature: Desmond Dugan 71c, Mark Moffett / Minden Pictures 32b, Wayne Hutchinson 71t; Garrett E Nagle: 20c, 23, 26, 27, 32t, 38b, 42t, 69, 70t, 111, 113, 116t, 116b, 123, 126, 128, 131, 134, 138tl, 142, 145, 156, 157, 158c, 158b, 159, 176, 189t, 217, 223, 231tl, 231tc, 237, 256, 305cr, 305bl, 305br, 307, 313; Getty Images: Deborah Harrison 301t, Joel Sartore / National Geographic 312tr, Ken Lucas 310, Mike Kemp 306, Stock4B 302, Tom Brakefield 133; Glen J Kuban: 308bl, 308br; Lyons Photo Library: 178bc, 178br, 238, 276c; Pearson Education Ltd: 3b, 18, 39, 40t, 42c, 70c, 97, 138tc, 138tr, 140c, 140b, 144, 175, 250, 274, 276b, 305cl, 312tc, 312cl, 312b, 312bl, 312bc, 3b, 18, 39, 40t, 42c, 70c, 97, 138tc, 138tr, 140c, 140b, 144, 175, 250, 274, 276b, 305cl, 312tc, 312cl, 312b, 312bl, 312bc; Penguin Books Ltd: 228; Rex Features: Sutton Hibbert 273; Sanjay Molur/WILD/ZOO: 195tr; Science Photo Library Ltd: David M Schleser / Nature’s Images 3c, David Parker 25, David Taylor 79, Dr Jeremy Burgess 50, Dr Keith Wheeler 271, Georgette Douwma 16, Jeff Lepore 8, Kjell B Sandved 22b, PG Adam / Publiphoto Diffusion 4, Sinclair Stammers 2, 22t, 66, Sinclair Stammers 2, 22t, 66, Sinclair Stammers 2, 22t, 66, US Geological Survey 76; www.CartoonStock.com: 301br. All other images © Pearson Education 00_Prelims.indd 2 17/09/2012 15:10 Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders and we apologise in advance for any unintentional omissions. We would be pleased to insert the appropriate acknowledgement in any subsequent edition of this publication. The assessment statements, assessment information and many practice questions have been reproduced from IBO documents and past examination papers. Our thanks go to the International Baccalaureate Organization for permission to reproduce its intellectual copyright. This material has been developed independently by the publisher and the content is in no way connected to with nor endorsed by the International Baccalaureate Organization. Dedications For my mother, and in memory of my father, Brian Davis, who is remembered here. With thanks to my colleagues in the Department of Biology at St Edward’s for their friendship and support – Lucy Baddeley, Lewis Faulkner, Kate Kettlewell, Jo Shindler, Al Summers, Helen Warden and Kendall Williams; to John Grahame who taught me ecology at Leeds, and Stephen Sutton who introduced me to the world of rainforests and conservation for which I am eternally grateful; to friends and colleagues at Danum Valley who taught me more about ecology than can be read about in textbooks; to Jane McNicholl and Sue Lees who were my way into teaching; to Lily French, Chris Hatton, Amy Hicks and Lydia Smith who together pioneered the course at St Edward’s and whose input is contained here; and to all my pupils over the years who have taught me much. This book is for my mother, who has taught me most of all. Andrew J Davis To Angela, Rosie, Patrick and Bethany With thanks to staff and students at St Edward’s School and to Angela, Rosie, Patrick and Bethany for their patience and good humour. Garrett E Nagle 00_Prelims.indd 3 17/09/2012 15:10 CONTENTS Introduction vi 1: Systems and models 1 1.1 Concepts and characteristics of systems 1 Practice questions 12 2: The ecosystem 14 2.1 Structure 14 2.2 Measuring abiotic components of the system 24 2.3 Measuring biotic components of the system 29 2.4 Biomes 35 2.5 Function 43 2.6 Changes 55 2.7 Measuring changes in the system 73 Practice questions 80 3: Human populations, carrying capacity and resource use 83 3.1 Population dynamics 83 3.2 Resources – natural capital 96 3.3 Energy resources 108 3.4 The soil system 122 3.5 Food resources 135 3.6 Water resources 146 3.7 Limits to growth 152 3.8 Environmental demands of human populations 160 Practice questions 173 4: Conservation and biodiversity 175 4.1 Biodiversity in ecosystems 175 4.2 Evaluating biodiversity and vulnerability 187 4.3 Conservation of biodiversity 202 Practice questions 214 5: Pollution management 217 5.1 Nature of pollution 217 5.2 Detection and monitoring of pollution 219 5.3 Approaches to pollution management 223 5.4 Eutrophication 230 iv 00_Prelims.indd 4 4/27/11 7:51 PM CONTENTS 5.5 Solid domestic waste 238 5.6 Depletion of stratospheric ozone 242 5.7 Urban air pollution 249 5.8 Acid deposition 253 Practice questions 258 6: The issue of global warming 261 6.1 The greenhouse effect 261 Practice questions 280 7: Environmental value systems 283 7.1 Environmental value systems and philosophies 283 Practice questions 298 8: Theory of knowledge 300 Overall assessment 316 Internal assessment 319 Advice on the Extended essay 323 Advice on examination strategies 328 Appendix: Basic statistics and data analysis 331 Additional practice questions for Chapters 2 and 3 352 Answers 360 Glossary 378 Index 384 v 00_Prelims.indd 5 4/27/11 7:51 PM INTRODUCTION Content Welcome to Environmental systems and societies (ESS). We hope you enjoy the course. This book is designed to be a comprehensive course book, covering all aspects of the syllabus. It will help you prepare for your examinations in a thorough and methodical way as it follows the syllabus outline section by section, explaining and expanding on the material in the course syllabus. Each chapter deals with one topic from the syllabus and, within each chapter, the main sections are numbered and named as in the syllabus. This makes the book readily accessible for use and reference throughout the course. There are also short chapters explaining overall assessment and internal assessment (IA) and offering advice on writing the Extended Essay (EE) and developing exam strategies. In addition, there is an appendix on basic statistics and data analysis. And after the answers section, you will find a glossary of useful terms that have been emboldened in the book. Links between different parts of the syllabus are emphasized, and key facts essential to your understanding are highlighted throughout. At the end of each section, you will find practice questions to test your knowledge and understanding of that part of the course. You can self-assess your answers using the mark-schemes in the answers section. The ESS course is the first fully transdisciplinary course within the IB. It covers group 3 (individuals and societies) and group 4 (experimental sciences). As a group 4 subject, it demands the scientific rigour expected of an experimental science, and has a large practical component. The group 3 approach balances this with a human-centred perspective which examines environmental issues from a social and cultural viewpoint. Throughout the book, you will look at the environment from the perspective of human societies, and assess their response in the light of the scientific framework used in environmental sciences. The book therefore looks at environmental issues from economic, historical, cultural, socio- political viewpoints as well as a scientific one, to provide a holistic perspective. The aims of the course and this book are to: • promote understanding of environmental processes at a variety of scales, from local to global • provide the methodologies and skills that can be used to analyse the environment at local and global levels • enable you to apply the knowledge, methodologies and skills gained • promote critical awareness of a diversity of cultural perspectives • recognize the extent to which technology plays a role in both causing and solving environmental issues • appreciate the value of local as well as international collaboration in resolving environmental problems • appreciate that environmental issues may be controversial, and may provoke a variety of responses • appreciate that human society is both directly and indirectly linked to the environment at a number of levels and at a variety of scales. vi 00_Prelims.indd 6 22/07/2010 11:16 Information boxes Throughout the book you will see a number of coloured boxes interspersed through each chapter. They may be in the margins or in the main text area. Each of these boxes provides different information and stimulus as follows. Assessment statements 2.1.1 Distinguish between biotic and abiotic (physical) components of an ecosystem. 2.1.2 Define the term trophic level. You will find a box like this at the start of each section in each chapter. They list the numbered objectives for the section you are about to read and set out what content and aspects of learning are covered in that section. Global warming challenges views of certainty within the sciences. In the popular perception, global warming is having a negative impact on the world. There is, moreover, some confusion between the public perception of global warming and the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is a natural process, without which there would be no life on Earth. The enhanced or accelerated greenhouse effect is synonymous with global warming. The enhanced greenhouse effect is largely due to human (anthropogenic) forces, although feedback mechanisms may trigger some natural forces, too. Lobby groups and politicians will take views which suit their own economic and political ends. In the USA, the strength of the oil companies during the Bush Administration was seen by many as an example of economic groups, and the politicians they supported, choosing a stance which was not in the long-term environmental, social or economic interest of the world. But it did benefit the oil The pH scale is logarithmic. companies and the politicians they supported. This means that pH 6.0 is 10 times more acidic than In addition to the Theory of Knowledge chapter, there are TOK boxes like this throughout pH 7.0; natural rainwater at pH 5.6 is about 25 times the book. These boxes are there to stimulate thought and consideration of any TOK issues more acidic than distilled as they arise and in context. Often, they will just contain a question to stimulate your own water at pH 7.0. Acid rain thoughts and discussion. is frequently more than 20 times more acidic than natural rainwater. Rain over Scandinavia commonly has The yellow interesting fact boxes contain interesting information which will add to your a pH of 4.2–4.3. wider knowledge but which does not fit within the main body of the text. Rainwater is normally a weak carbonic acid with a pH of about 5.5. Acid rain is a more acidic substance, due to the addition of sulfur dioxide and the oxides of nitrogen. Any rain with a pH below 5.5 is termed ‘acid rain’. The green key fact boxes contain key facts which are drawn out of the main text and To learn more about smog highlighted. This makes them easily identifiable for quick reference. The boxes also enable levels in Los Angeles on you to identify the core learning points within a section. 4 July 2008, go to www. pearsonhotlinks.com, Hotlinks boxes direct you to the publisher’s website, which in turn will take you to the insert the express code 2630P and click on activity relevant website(s). On the web pages there, you will find additional information to 5.21. support the topic, video simulations, and the like. Blue online resources boxes indicate that online resources are available that relate to this To access worksheet section of the book on www.pearsonbacconline.com. These resources might be extension 4.6 on endangered exercises, additional practice questions, interactive online material, suggestions for IA, EE species, please visit www. pearsonbacconline.com and revision, or other sources of information. In addition to these resources, there are new and follow the on-screen topical worksheets uploaded every month. Visit www.pearsonbacconline.com to see this instructions. month’s topic and worksheets from the past year. vii 00_Prelims.indd 7 05/09/2012 14:07 Introduction The first effects of acid rain were noted in Scandinavian lakes in the 1960s. Over 18 000 lakes in Sweden are acidified, 4000 of them, are seriously affected. Fish stocks in about 9000 Swedish lakes, mostly in the south and the centre of the country, are also badly affected. In the Eastern USA and Canada over 48 000 lakes are too acidic to support fish. A global perspective is important to the International Baccalaureate. These boxes indicate examples of internationalism within the area of study. The information given offers you the chance to think about how Environmental systems and societies fits into the global landscape. EnvironmEntal philosophiEs Ultimately, the choices people make depend on their environmental philosophy. People with an anthropocentric worldview see the technological possibilities as central to solving environmental problems. An ecocentric worldview leads to greater caution and a drive to use Earth’s natural resources in a sustainable way rather than rely on technology to solve the problems. A central theme of the course is that diverse societies view the environment and environmental problems in different ways. These environmental philosophies lie on a spectrum, from cultures that have a life-centred worldview, seeing humans as being heavily reliant on nature and needing to use the Earth’s resources in a sustainable way (ecocentric), to those that see nature as being for the benefit of human kind (anthropocentric) where technology is able to solve environmental problems (a technocentric approach). The cause and effect of these different environmental philosophies is covered in detail in Chapter 7. Examiner’s hints Examiner’s hints provide insight into how to answer a question in Soil pH can be measured using a universal indicator as follows. order to achieve the highest marks in an examination. They also 1 Take a small soil sample from a known depth (horizon) of soil. identify common pitfalls when answering such questions and 2 Place about 1–2 cm of soil in the bottom of a test tube. suggest approaches that examiners like to see. 3 Add 1–2 cm of barium sulfate (this causes the clay to settle leaving a clear solution. 4 Fill the tube with distilled water and shake. 5 Add a few drops of universal indicator to clear the solution. Compare the colour of the liquid to the colour of the chart provided. The pH can be read off to the nearest 0.5. CasE study Fertility in the arab world The Arab performance in improving women’s health is unmatched. Female life expectancy is up from 52 years in 1970 to more than 70 years in 2004. The number of children borne by the average Arab woman has fallen by half in the past 20 years, to a level scarcely higher than world norms. In Oman, fertility has plummeted from ten births per woman to fewer than four. A main reason for this is a dramatic rise in the age at which girls marry. A generation ago, three-quarters of Arab women were married by the time they were 20. That proportion has dropped by half. In large Arab cities, the high cost of housing, added to the need for women to pursue degrees or start careers, is prompting many to delay marriage until they are in their 30s. Case studies are self-contained examples that you can use to answer questions on specific points. They are usually longer than this example and often contain photographs or other illustration. viii 00_Prelims.indd 8 22/07/2010 11:16 Approaches to Environmental systems and societies Systems approach The nature of environmental issues demands a holistic treatment. This is why the systems approach is central to the course. This approach is explained in detail in Chapter 1, and used throughout this book. Science often uses a reductionist approach to examine phenomena, breaking a system down into its components and studying them separately. Environmental science cannot work in this way, as understanding the functioning of the whole topic (e.g. an ecosystem) is essential (i.e. a holistic approach is needed). The traditional reductionist approach of science inevitably tends to overlook or understate this important holistic quality. Furthermore, the systems approach is common to many disciplines (e.g. economics, geography, politics, and ecology). It emphasizes the similarities between all these disciplines in the ways in which matter, energy and information flow, allowing common terminology to be used when discussing different systems and disciplines. This approach therefore integrates the perspectives of different subjects. Throughout this book, the integrated nature of this subject is stressed by examining the links between different areas of the syllabus and between different disciplines. Sustainability Sustainability is a term that refers to the use of natural resources in a way that does not reduce or degrade them, so that they are available for future generations. The concept of sustainability is central to an understanding of the nature of interactions between environmental systems and societies. Throughout the book, we look at resource management issues and show that these are essentially ones of sustainability. Holistic evaluation The systems approach used throughout the course, as we have already discussed, encourages a holistic appreciation of the complexities of environmental issues. The interaction between environmental systems and societies is central to this holistic approach. The course requires you to consider the costs and the benefits of human activities, both to the environment and to societies, over the short and long term. In doing so, you will arrive at informed personal viewpoints. The book explains how you can justify your own position, and appreciate the views of others, along a continuum of environmental philosophies. Local and global approaches This course studies environmental systems and societies at a range of scales from local to global. Inevitably, appreciation of your local environment will enable you to appreciate these issues from a local perspective, through carrying out field-work in nearby ecosystems and research on local issues. Certain issues such as resource and pollution management require a national or regional perspective, and others an international perspective (e.g. global warming) and the book explores all these perspectives in detail. On a broader scale, the course naturally leads us to an appreciation of the nature of the international dimension, since the resolution of the major environmental issues rests heavily on international relationships and agreements – case studies and key facts are used to illustrate these points throughout the book. Now you are ready to start. Good luck with your studies. ix 00_Prelims.indd 9 22/07/2010 11:16

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Most books are stored in the elastic cloud where traffic is expensive. For this reason, we have a limit on daily download.