Evaluation and Assessment for Conservation: Ecological guidelines for determining priorities for nature conservation

269 Pages·1992·7.916 MB·English

by  Ian F. Spellerberg (auth.)

Evaluation and Assessment
for Conservation
Evaluation and Assessment
for Conservation
Ecological guidelines for determining priorities for
nature conservation
IAN F. SPELLERBERG
Senior Lecturer in Biology, and Director of Studies for Environmental Sciences,
University of Southampton
Foreword by Jeffrey A. McNeely
Chief Conservation Officer, IUCN
Iu
111
Springer-Science+Business Media, B.Y.
Published by
Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEI 8HN
Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEI 8HN, UK
Blackie Academic & Professional, Wester Cleddens Road, Bishopbriggs,
Glasgow G64 2NZ, UK
Chapman & Hall, 29 West 35th Street, New York NY10001, USA
Chapman & Hall japan, Thomson Publishing japan, Hirakawacho
Nemoto Building, 6F, 1-7-11 Hirakawa-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102,
japan·
Chapman & Hall Australia, Thomas Nelson Australia, 102 Dodds Street,
South Melbourne, Victoria 3205, Australia
Chapman & Hall India, R. Seshadri, 32 Second Main Road, CIT East,
Madras 600 035, India
First edition 1992
© 1992 lan F. Spellerberg/Evaluation & Assessment for Conservation
Typeset in 10/12pt Sabon by Intype, London
ISBN 978-94-010-5016-6 ISBN 978-94-011-2302-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-2302-0
Softcover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 1992
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study,
or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and
Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in
writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographie reproduction only
in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing
Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by
the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries
concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to
the publishers at the London address printed on this page.
The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard
to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept
any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be
made.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data available
Printed on permanent acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance
with the proposed ANSIINISO Z 39.48-199X and ANSI Z 39.48-1984
Contents
Foreword IX
Preface X11l
Acknowledgements XV
1 Importance and value of biodiversity 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Losses in biodiversity 3
1.3 Benefits and functions of biodiversity 13
1.4 Exploitation: a way to conserve wildlife and natural areas? 20
1.5 Conservation in action 21
1.6 Evaluation and assessment 25
1. 7 Summary 31
References 32
2 An ecological basis for evaluation and assessment 37
2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 Populations, distribution and abundance 37
2.3 The rarity of species 38
2.4 Species composition, richness and diversity 45
2.5 Area and species richness 48
2.6 Communities and community structure 50
2.7 Biological indicators and indices 52
2.8 Mapping, surveying and data collection 53
2.9 Conclusions 62
References 62
3 Methods of valuing nature and the environment 65
3.1 Introduction 65
3.2 Notional monetary values 66
3.3 Valuing economic benefits 69
3.4 Amenity evaluation 70
3.5 Energy-based evaluation 75
3.6 Replacement value 76
3.7 Conclusions 77
References 79
VI Contents
4 Assessment for conservation and protection 81
4.1 Introduction 81
4.2 Systematics and taxonomy as a basis for assessment 82
4.3 Wildlife law 84
4.4 Priority and red lists 90
4.5 Priorities for endangered species conservation 101
4.6 Conclusions 105
References 109
5 Ecological evaluation of biotic communities 113
5.1 Introduction 113
5.2 Priority ranking and habitat evaluation 114
5.3 Systematics and taxonomic groups 129
5.4 Ecological evaluation of avian habitats 134
5.5 Ecological evaluation of temperate woodlands 144
5.6 Ecological evaluation of urban habitats 149
5.7 Ecological evaluation of aquatic and riparian habitats 153
5.8 Conclusions 159
References 164
6 Evaluation and assessment of areas for protection 171
6.1 Introduction 171
6.2 A historical perspective 171
6.3 Protected areas: objectives, categories and area 172
6.4 Landscape evaluation 178
6.5 Wilderness areas 182
6.6 Nature reserves: criteria and selection 184
6.7 The benefits and limitations of protected areas 195
6.8 Conclusions 198
References 201
7 Evaluation and assessment in planning and development 205
7.1 Introduction 205
7.2 Evaluation and land use planning 205
7.3 Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) 217
7.4 Ecological assessments 220
7.5 Conclusions 231
References 234
Contents Vll
8 Epilogue 237
Appendix A: Further reading and reference material 243
Appendix B: Organizations mentioned in the text 245
Appendix C: Glossary 251
Index 257
Foreword
Most politicians have jumped on the conservation bandwagon, and nobody
running for public office these days can afford to take an overtly anti
environment stand. The fascination that children have for nature, the gen
erous donations people make to conservation organizations, the votes cast
for 'Green Parties,' the continuing popularity of zoos and wildlife films,
and the strong sales of books about the environment all provide evidence
to politicians that the general public supports the idea of conservation.
Conservation has become a major issue for governments. No longer is it
necessary for conservationists to campaign for getting the cause on the
agenda: it is already there, at least as a talking point.
The issue now is how to convert this generalized interest into real action.
And among the many priorities competing for attention, how is a govern
ment (or a private organization) to decide wh at to do first? From a very
limited budget - for budgets will always be limited - what is the package
of activities that is most likely to lead to the results that the public wants?
lan Spellerberg attempts to address these questions which are at the he art
of modern conservation action. It is relatively easy to prescribe useful
activities that will benefit both the environment and the public at large.
But it is far more difficult to devise actions that will meet these two
conditions and be acceptable to the local people whose behaviour is
expected to change. A farmer who has grazed his sheep for decades on a
moor will not take kindly to having his pastures converted into astriet
nature reserve for the pleasure of urban birdwatchers, and hunters are
notoriously steadfast in defence of their sport.
Some high-minded individuals may be willing to forego some personal
gain for the general good - the higher prices paid for some 'green products'
is an indicator. But many others will need to be convinced in economic
terms that conservation provides real benefits. And since those seeking to
exploit nature can marshall ample economic justification in support of
their position, conservationists must use similarly rigorous approaches to
support less abusive uses of the resources if they are to win the day.
lan Spellerberg provides a rich buffet of such approaches. Far more than
a random sampie of savoury dishes, he provides a balanced diet, leavening
economics with ecology, endangered species with energy-based evaluation,
exploitation with amenities, environmental impact assessment with histori
cal perspectives. Such a meal enables the reader to enquire into the
implications of declining populations of wildlife for entire ecosystems:
x Foreword
woodlands, riverine habitats, and even urban areas (where, as he points
out, a surprising number of hardy species are able to prosper). Helping us
digest a veritable feast of intellectual nourishment, Ian Spellerberg provides
the basis for making decisions about how to invest in conservation.
One of his main ingredients is economics, since most politicians consider
this dismal science to provide their most useful allies. But he does not
accept at face value the assertions of mainstream economists, pointing out
that the standard economic models fail to give sufficient weight to long
term benefits; that approaches to assessing the economic values of natural
processes such as watershed protection or amelioration of climate remain
rudimentary at best; and that the aesthetic, ethical, cultural, and scientific
considerations that must be part of the economic equation are usually
notable by their absence.
Ian Spellerberg is similarly cautious about ecology, his other main
ingredient. He recognizes that even in a data-rich environment like the UK,
considerable uncertainty still surrounds the task of assigning qualitative
and quantitative values to ecosystem functions. Nobody really knows
enough about any gene, species, or ecosystem to be able to calculate its
ecological worth in the larger scheme of things. Further, the reasons for
the existence of species and ecosystems may be far more subtle than simply
supporting the desires of the current generation of consumers, so a simple
measure of direct utility is not sufficient. Species important to human
welfare are not limited to wild relatives of agricultural crops, or species
that are harvested for food, fuel, or medicine; 'low status' life forms such
as earthworms, bees, and termites may be even more important to society
in terms of the role they play in maintaining healthy and productive ecosys
tems. Continuing on our current path of over-consumption and mindless
pollution is all too likely to threaten especially these more covert species
whose contribution to ecological processes is not obvious, even to ecol
ogists. Some of these species may be gone before anyone even realizes that
they were going, or why they were here. In essence, we are embarking on
a one-way voyage to an uncertain and less diverse future, without giving
very much consideration to the consequences.
Realizing that uncertainty is inevitable when alte ring ecosystems, how
can society make the best decisions about how to allocate scarce resources
to conservation? How can the 'precautionary principle' be put into practice
within the constraints of government budgets and competing priorities? Ian
Spellerberg helps us to open our eyes, and to understand the many variables
that must be considered in making decisions about conservation.
Society decides what is important through the political process, which
in turn is informed by what the public knows about the issues to be
addressed, the options available, and the likely results of those actions.
Evaluation and Assessment for Conservation will help ensure that the
choices affecting the remaining natural habitats are informed ones, and that
Foreword
Xl
nature will greet our choices with the expected exuberance of wildflowers,
plentiful clean water, abundant wildlife, and a better quality of life. Should
society settle for anything less?
Jeffrey A McNeely
Chief Conservation Officer