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ARCHAEOLOGICAL THEORY THE BASICS Archaeological Theory: The Basics is an accessible introduction to an indispensable part of what archaeologists do. The book guides the reader to an understanding of what theory is, how it works and the range of theories used in archaeology. The growth of theory and the adoption of theories drawn from both the natural and social sciences have broadened our ability to produce trustworthy knowledge about the past. This book helps readers to see the value of archaeological theory and beyond what is sometimes thought to be just the use of indigestible jargon. Key theories and concepts are introduced to the reader. Among the main questions discussed are the following: • What is theory and why do we need it? • Which major areas of theory are, and have been, used and debated in archaeology? • What do they tell us about themes including human society, evolution, culture, identity and agency? • How might archaeological theory change in the future? This book is written mainly for readers new to archaeology and will help them to understand archaeological theory. It assumes no prior knowledge of archaeological theory and presents it in a selective and clear way, with case studies showing how theory is used in practice. Robert Chapman is Emeritus Professor of Archaeology at the University of Reading. His research interests include the later prehistory of Iberia, the development of inequalities in human societies, and archaeological theory. The Basics Series The Basics is a highly successful series of accessible guidebooks which provide an overview of the fundamental principles of a subject area in a jargon-free and undaunting format. Intended for students approaching a subject for the first time, the books both introduce the essentials of a subject and provide an ideal springboard for further study. With over 50 titles spanning subjects from artificial intelligence (AI) to women’s studies, The Basics are an ideal starting point for students seeking to understand a subject area. Each text comes with recommendations for further study and gradually introduces the complexities and nuances within a subject. INFANCY Marc H. Bornstein and Martha E. Arterberry EDUCATIONAL NEUROSCIENCE Cathy Rogers and Michael S. C. Thomas CLASSICAL MYTHOLOGY (SECOND EDITION) Richard Martin PLAY DIRECTING: THE BASICS Damon Kiely ARCHAEOLOGICAL THEORY: THE BASICS Robert Chapman For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge. com/Routledge-The-Basics-Series/book-series/TBS ARCHAEOLOGICAL THEORY THE BASICS Robert Chapman Cover image: Bronze Age rock art, Ormaig, Scotland, Andrew Cochrane & Aaron Watson First published 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 Robert Chapman The right of Robert Chapman to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-138-10124-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-10123-4 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-65709-7 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781315657097 Typeset in Bembo Std by codeMantra CONTENTS List of figures and tables vi List of boxes vii Preface ix Acknowledgments xi 1 What Is Theory and Why Do We Need it? 1 2 Social Relations and the Legacy of Marx 26 3 Evolutionary Thought and the Legacy of Darwin 55 4 Culture, Agency and Identity 83 5 Being in a Material World 116 6 Where Now? 148 References 160 Index 179 FIGURES AND TABLES FIGURE 4.1 Successive ritual practices (1–6) from death to skull reburial in the Near East Middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period. A more schematic version of Kuijt (2008: Figure 2) with the addition of a stage of excavation. Each stage from 1 to 6 takes place over a variable length of time. The length of time between stage 6 and excavation in stage 7 takes place over 12 millennia 106 TABLES 2.1 Forces and relations of production 30 3.1 N eo-evolutionary typologies 59 4.1 Some definitions of culture 88 4.2 Three waves of feminism 110 5.1 Three definitions of materiality 118 5.2 New materialisms, key authors and their disciplines 130 BOXES 1.1 Human Nature and Essentialism 3 1.2 Medieval ‘Rubbish’ Pits 5 1.3 An Archaeologist and Her Archaeology 9 1.4 Multiple Lines of Evidence: Population Movement 21 2.1 Marx and Engels’ Materialist Philosophy 31 2.2 Gordon Childe’s Marxist Archaeology 41 2.3 Prehistoric Metal Production and Social Relations in Southeast Spain 43 2.4 Two Examples of World Systems in Europe 47 2.5 Archaeology and Ideology 49 2.6 Ludlow and Working-Class History 51 3.1 Mesolithic Ecosystems in Europe 64 3.2 Biogeography and Mediterranean Islands 66 3.3 Diet Breadth and Patch Choice Models 69 3.4 Archaeological Applications of Optimal Foraging Theory 70 3.5 Signaling Theory and Prestige Hunting 74 3.6 Modes of Transmission and Craft Skills 77 4.1 Standpoints and Multiple Narratives 85 4.2 Individuals and Individualism 95 4.3 Agency and Individuals 99 4.4 Agency and Unintended Consequences 100 4.5 Secondary Burial and Ritual Heirlooms 105 5.1 Makers and Materials 119 5.2 Experiencing the Landscape 125 5.3 Fragmentation and Personhood 128 viii BOXES 5.4 Symmetrical Archaeology 134 5.5 Assemblage Thought and Chaco Canyon 140 5.6 Things, Objects and Artefacts 142 5.7 Path Dependence 144 PREFACE Anyone who has read archaeological publications will have come across the word ‘theory’, along with its own (often polysyllabic) vocabulary drawn from disciplines in the natural and social sciences. The introduction of such concepts and ideas from other disciplines was greeted with horror and indignation by many established archaeologists in the 1960s. Five decades later, theory is recognised as being as essential as practice for an education in, and understanding of, archaeology. But there is still a suspicion that basic ideas are being hidden behind a wall of jargon. For example (and I am not picking on the writer), take the claim that Neolithic burial cairns on Orkney ‘provided externalized ontological security within a fluid and transient regime of dwelling’. This book is intended for anyone interested in archaeology as a hobby or career, or beginning to study archaeology on a degree course, or perhaps already participating in field archaeology but still more than a little baffled by theory. I hope to persuade the reader that theory is embedded in the ‘doing’ of archaeology, essential to our understandings of the past, as well as being intellectually stimu- lating. It does not have to be confusing: once defined and set into context, initially daunting ideas and concepts become more familiar. I try to define key concepts, introduce the main theories and schools of thought and show the diversity of theoretical approaches, as well as their strengths and weaknesses. Selective coverage is unavoid- able given the sheer volume of the literature on theory and the word limit of this book. Theories also vary in popularity at any one time, but it is important that we understand their nature and history