Two-dimensional variational systems on the root lattice Q(A ) N Raphael Boll January 21, 2016 Institut für Mathematik, MA 7-2, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 136, 10623 Berlin, Germany 6 E-mail: boll@math.tu-berlin.de 1 0 2 n Abstract a J We study certain two-dimensional variational systems, namely pluri-Lagrangian systems 0 on the root lattice Q(AN). Here, we follow the scheme which was already used to define 2 two-dimensional pluri-Lagrangian systems on the lattice ZN and three-dimensional pluri- Lagrangian systems on the lattice ZN as well as on Q(A ). We will show that the two- N ] dimensional pluri-Lagragian systems on Q(A ) are more general than the ones on ZN, in h N p thesensethattheycanencodeseveraldifferentpluri-LagrangiansystemsonZN. Thisalso - means that the variational formulation of several systems of certain hyperbolic equations, h so-called quad-equations, can be obtained from one and the same pluri-Lagrangian system t a on Q(A ). N m [ Keywords: variationalsystem,Lagrangian,cornerequation,rootlattice,discreteintegrable 1 system v 6 1. Introduction 9 2 5 Avariational(orLagrangian)formulationforcertaintwo-dimensionaldiscretehyperbolicequa- 0 tions (so-called quad-equations) was established in several papers: While in [ABS03] the action . 1 on the two-dimensional lattice Z2 and the corresponding Euler-Lagrange equations were given, 0 6 in the pioneering work [LN09], the introduction of the concept of discrete 2-forms allowed to 1 consider the action and the corresponding Euler-Lagrange equations on arbitrary 2-manifolds v: in a higher-dimensional lattice ZN. This concept was applied to the complete list of quad- Xi equations in the well-known ABS classification [ABS03] in [BS10] and for the asymmetric extension [Bol11] in [BS12]. r a The weakness of this variational formulation is that the corresponding Euler-Lagrange equations do not coincide with the hyperbolic equations: the former are just consequences of the latter ones or, in other words, the set of solutions of the Euler-Lagrange equations is essentially bigger than the one of the corresponding hyperbolic equations. Similarly, a variational formulation for the three-dimensional discrete KP equation was given in [LNQ09]. In this case, we were able to prove (see [BPS16]) that the Euler-Lagrange equations are equivalent to the corresponding hyperbolic equations. Moreover, we also presented a 1 1. Introduction variational formulation with similar properties of the discrete KP equation on the root lattice Q(A ) in the same paper. N Recently, also the Euler-Lagrange equations considered as integrable systems themselves came more and more into the focus of interest. The underlying theory of pluri-Lagrangian problems was developed for two-dimensional systems in [BPS14, BPS15b]. While in the first of these publications the concept of so-called corner equations as elementary building blocks of Euler-Lagrange equations was introduced, in the second one, the notion of consistency for these corner corner equations was further elucidated. The theory of three-dimensional pluri- Lagrangian problems was developed in [BPS16]. Inthepresentpaperwewillintroducethetheoryoftwo-dimensionalpluri-Lagrangiansystems on the root lattice Q(A ) and we will show that these are more general than the ones on the N lattices ZN in the sense that they can encode several different pluri-Lagrangian systems on ZN. This means also that the variational formulation for several systems can be obtained in a straightforward procedure from one and the same pluri-Lagrangian system on Q(A ). N Moreover, the latter fact corresponds to the fact that certain systems of quad-equations are connected to each other by a certain flipping procedure which was described in [Bol11]. Let us start with some concrete definitions valid for an arbitrary N-dimensional lattice X. Definition1.1(Discrete2-form). Adiscrete2-form onX isareal-valuedfunctionLoforiented 2-cells σ depending on some field x : X → R, such that L changes the sign by changing the orientation of σ. For instance, in Q(A ), the 2-cells are triangles, and, in ZN, the 2-cells are quadrilaterals. N Definition 1.2 (2-dimensional pluri-Lagrangian problem). Let L be a discrete 2-form on X depending on x : X → R. • Toanarbitrary2-manifoldΣ ⊂ X,i.e.,aunionoforiented2-cellswhichformsanoriented two-dimensional topological manifold, there corresponds the action functional, which as- signs to x| , i.e., to the fields in the set of the vertices V(Σ) of Σ, the number V(Σ) (cid:88) S := L(σ). Σ σ∈Σ • We say that the field x : V(Σ) → R is a critical point of S , if at any interior point Σ n ∈ V(Σ), we have ∂S Σ = 0. (1) ∂x(n) Equations (1) are called discrete Euler-Lagrange equations for the action S . Σ • We say that the field x : X → R solves the pluri-Lagrangian problem for the Lagrangian 2-form L if, for any 2-manifold Σ ⊂ X, the restriction x| is a critical point of the V(Σ) corresponding action S . Σ Main results The main results of the present paper may be summarized as follows: 2 2. The root lattice Q(A ) N • Similar to the case of the lattice ZN, we see how Euler-Lagrange equations on Q(A ) N arising from pluri-Lagrangian problems form integrable systems on every 2-manifold in the lattice. These are called pluri-Lagrangian systems. • Pluri-Lagrangian systems on Q(A ) can encode several pluri-Lagrangian systems on ZN. N • The variational formulation of systems of quad-equations which are related by a certain flipping procedure described in [Bol11] can be obtained from one and the same pluri- Lagrangian system on Q(A ). N Thepaperisorganizedasfollows: InSection2, wewillgiveabriefintroductiontothetheory of the root lattice Q(A ) and prove that any 2-manifold with exactly one interior point and N be build up as a sum certain elementary building blocks, so-called 3D corners. Then we will studythepropertiesofthediscrete2-formsandthecorrespondingEuler-Lagrangeequationson the root lattice Q(A ) in Section 3. After that we will study the relation between the lattices N Q(A ) and ZN in Section 4 and we will transfer our results from Section 3 to the lattice N ZN in Section 5. In Section 6, we will review the variational formulations of quad-equations. Finally, we will consider a less symmetric example in Section 7 which demonstrates that pluri- Lagrangian systems are more general than the ones on ZN and can encode the variational formulation of several systems of quad-equations. 2. The root lattice Q(A ) N We consider the root lattice Q(A ) := {n := (n ,n ,...,n ) ∈ ZN+1 : n +n +...+n = 0}, N 0 1 N 0 1 N where N ≥ 2. The two-dimensional sub-lattices Q(A ) are given by 2 Q(A ) := {(n ,n ,n ) : n +n +n = const}. 2 i j k i j k We consider fields x : Q(A ) → R, and use the shorthand notations N x = x(n−e ), x = x(n), and x = x(n+e ), ¯ı i i i where e is the unit vector in the ith coordinate direction. Furthermore, the shift functions T i i and T are defined by ¯ı T x := x and T x := x i α iα ¯ı α ¯ıα for a multiindex α. For simplicity, we sometimes abuse notations by identifying lattice points n with the corresponding fields x(n). We now give a very brief introduction to the Delaunay cell structure of the N-dimensional root lattice Q(A ) [CS91, MP92]. Here, we restrict ourselves to a very elementary description N which is appropriate to our purposes and follow the considerations in [ABS12, BPS16]. For each d ≤ N there are d sorts of d-cells of Q(A ) denoted by P(k,d) with k = 1,...,d: N • One sort of 1-cells: P(1,1): edges [ij] := {x ,x }; i j 3 2. The root lattice Q(A ) N • Two sorts of 2-cells: P(1,2): black triangles (cid:98)ijk(cid:99) := {x ,x ,x }; i j k P(2,2): white triangles (cid:100)ijk(cid:101) := {x ,x ,x }; ij ik jk • Three sorts of 3-cells: P(1,3): black tetrahedra (cid:98)ijk(cid:96)(cid:99) := {x ,x ,x ,x }; i j k (cid:96) P(2,3): octahedra [ijk(cid:96)] := {x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x }; ij ik i(cid:96) jk j(cid:96) k(cid:96) P(3,3): white tetrahedra (cid:100)ijk(cid:96)(cid:101) := {x ,x ,x ,x }; ijk ij(cid:96) ik(cid:96) jk(cid:96) The facets of 2-cells and 3-cells can be found in Appendix A. In the present paper we will consider objects on oriented manifolds. We say that an elementary cell is positively oriented if the indices in the bracket are increasingly ordered. For instance, the black triangle (cid:98)ijk(cid:99) and white triangle (cid:100)ijk(cid:101) are positively oriented if i < j < k (see Figure 1). Any permutation of two indices changes the orientation to the opposite one. xk xjk xik x x x i j ij (a) (b) Figure 1: Orientation of triangles: (a) the black triangle (cid:98)ijk(cid:99); (b) the white triangle −(cid:100)ijk(cid:101) Whenweusethebracketnotation, wealwayswritethelettersinbracketsinincreasingorder, so, e.g., in writing (cid:98)ijk(cid:99) we assume that i < j < k and avoid the notation (cid:98)jik(cid:99) or (cid:98)ikj(cid:99) for the negatively oriented triangle −(cid:98)ijk(cid:99). There is a simple recipe to derive the orientation of facets of an d-cell: On every index in the brackets we put alternately a “+” or a “−” starting with a “+” on the last index. Then the orientation of each of its facets is indicated by the sign corresponding to the index in the bracket which is omitted. For instance, the octahedron −+−+ [i j k (cid:96)] has the four black triangular facets T (cid:98)ijk(cid:99), −T (cid:98)ij(cid:96)(cid:99), T (cid:98)ik(cid:96)(cid:99), and −T (cid:98)jk(cid:96)(cid:99). (cid:96) k j i The following two definitions are valid for arbitrary N-dimensional lattices X. Definition 2.1 (Adjacent d-cell). Given an d-cell σ, another d-cell σ¯ is called adjacent to σ if σ and σ¯ share a common (d−1)-cell. The orientation of this (d−1)-cell in σ must be opposite to its orientation in σ¯. The latter property guarantees that the orientations of the adjacent d-cells agree. For instance, in any 2-manifold, any two 2-cells sharing an edge have to be adjacent. Examples for open 2-manifolds in Q(A ) are the two-dimensional sub-lattices Q(A ), whereas examples of N 2 4 3. Discrete 2-forms on Q(A ) N closed 2-manifolds in Q(A ) are the set of facets of a tetrahedron (consisting of four triangles N of the same color) and the set of facets of an octahedron (consisting of four black and four white triangles). Definition 2.2 (Flower). A 2-manifold in X with exactly one interior vertex x is called a flower with center x. The flower at an interior vertex x of a given 2-manifold is the flower with center x which lies completely in the 2-manifold. As a consequence, in Q(A ), in each flower every triangle has exactly two adjacent triangles. N For instance, in an open 2-manifold Q(A ) the flower at an interior vertex consists of six N triangles (three black and three white ones). The elementary building blocks of flowers are so-called 3D corners: Definition 2.3 (3D corner). A 3D corner with center x is a 2-manifold consisting of all facets of a 3-cell adjacent to x. In Q(A ), there are two different types of 3D corners: a corner on a tetrahedron (consisting N of a three triangles of the same color) and a corner on an octahedron (consisting of two black and two white triangles), see Appendix B for details. The following combinatorial statement will be proven in Appendix C: Theorem2.4. Thefloweratanyinteriorvertexofany2-manifoldinQ(A )canberepresented N as a sum of 3D corners in Q(A ). N+2 3. Discrete 2-forms on Q(A ) N Let L be a discrete 2-form on Q(A ). The exterior derivative dL is a discrete 3-form whose N value at any 3-cell in Q(A ) is the action functional of L on the 2-manifold consisting of the N facets of the 3-cell. For our purposes, we consider discrete 2-forms L vanishing on all white triangles. In particular, we have dL((cid:100)ijk(cid:96)(cid:101)) ≡ 0 since a white tetrahedron (cid:100)ijk(cid:96)(cid:101) only contain white triangles. Moreover, motivated from the case of the lattice ZN (see [LN09, BS10, BS12, BPS14]), we restrict ourselves to 2-forms of the form L((cid:98)ijk(cid:99)) = Λij([ij])+Λik(−[ik])+Λjk([jk]) (2) on black triangles (cid:98)ijk(cid:99), where the functions Λij assigned to the edges [ij] of the triangle are discrete1-formswhichcanbedifferentfordifferentlatticedirectionsi,j. Therefore,theexterior derivative on a black tetrahedron (cid:98)ijk(cid:96)(cid:99) is given by dL((cid:98)ijk(cid:96)(cid:99)) = L((cid:98)ijk(cid:99))+L(−(cid:98)ij(cid:96)(cid:99))+L((cid:98)ik(cid:96)(cid:99))+L(−(cid:98)jk(cid:96)(cid:99)) = Λij([ij])+Λik(−[ik])+Λjk([jk]) +Λij(−[ij])+Λi(cid:96)([i(cid:96)])+Λj(cid:96)(−[j(cid:96)]) +Λik([ik])+Λi(cid:96)(−[i(cid:96)])+Λk(cid:96)([k(cid:96)]) +Λjk(−[jk])+Λj(cid:96)([j(cid:96)])+Λk(cid:96)(−[k(cid:96)]) ≡ 0 5 3. Discrete 2-forms on Q(A ) N and the exterior derivative on an octahedron [ijk(cid:96)] is given by Sijk(cid:96) := dL([ijk(cid:96)]) = L(T (cid:98)ijk(cid:99))+L(−T (cid:98)ij(cid:96)(cid:99))+L(T (cid:98)ik(cid:96)(cid:99))+L(−T (cid:98)jk(cid:96)(cid:99)) (cid:96) k j i = Λij(T [ij])+Λik(−T [ik])+Λjk(T [jk]) (cid:96) (cid:96) (cid:96) (3) +Λij(−T [ij])+Λi(cid:96)(T [i(cid:96)])+Λj(cid:96)(−T [j(cid:96)]) k k k +Λik(T [ik])+Λi(cid:96)(−T [i(cid:96)])+Λk(cid:96)(T [k(cid:96)]) j j j +Λjk(−T [jk])+Λj(cid:96)(T [j(cid:96)])+Λk(cid:96)(−T [k(cid:96)]). i i i Accordingly, the Euler-Lagrange equations on an octahedron [ijk(cid:96)] are ∂Sijk(cid:96) ∂Sijk(cid:96) ∂Sijk(cid:96) = 0, = 0, = 0, ∂x ∂x ∂x ij ik i(cid:96) (4) ∂Sijk(cid:96) ∂Sijk(cid:96) ∂Sijk(cid:96) = 0, = 0, = 0. ∂x ∂x ∂x jk j(cid:96) k(cid:96) These equations are called corner equations. The system of six corner equations on an octahedron [ijk(cid:96)] is called consistent if it has the minimal possible rank 2, i.e., exactly two equations are independent. The following statement is an immediate consequence of Theorem 2.4: Theorem 3.1. For every discrete 2-form on Q(A ) and every 2-manifold in Q(A ) all cor- N N responding Euler-Lagrange equations can be written as sums of corner equations. It is obvious that Sijk(cid:96) is constant on solutions of (4). The vanishing of this constant, i.e. the closedness of the 2-form, can be seen as a criterion of integrability for pluri-Lagrangian systems (see [BPS14, BPS15a] for more explanations). Fordiscrete2-formsoftheformdescribedin(2)thecornerequationshaveafour-legstructure. For instance, the first one in (4) reads as ∂Sijk(cid:96) ∂Λik(T [ik]) ∂Λi(cid:96)(−T [i(cid:96)]) ∂Λjk(−T [jk]) ∂Λj(cid:96)(T [j(cid:96)]) j j i i E := = + + + = 0. (5) ij ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ij ij ij ij ij We call this equation the corner equation centered in x . ij Example 3.2. Consider the discrete 2-form L, where for all lattice directions i,j the discrete 1-form Λij is given by Λij([ij]) := (αi−αj)log|x −x |. i j Here, αi,αj ∈ R are real parameters assigned to the lattice directions. Then the system (4) of corner equations is consistent and equation (5) reads as αi−αk αi−α(cid:96) αj −αk αj −α(cid:96) − − + = 0. x −x x −x x −x x −x ij jk ij j(cid:96) ij ik ij i(cid:96) For the proof of the consistency of (4) as well as the closedness of the corresponding 2-form is closed on its solutions, we refer to Example 5.2. 6 4. The lattice ZN 4. The lattice ZN We will now consider the relation between the elementary cells of the root lattice Q(A ) and N the lattice ZN. The points of Q(A ) and of ZN are in a one-to-one correspondence via N P : Q(A ) → ZN, x(n ,...,n ,n ,n ,...,n ) (cid:55)→ x(n ,...,n ,n ,...,n ). i N 0 i−1 i i+1 N 0 i−1 i+1 N The two-dimensional elementary cells of ZN are oriented quadrilaterals {jk} := {x,x ,x ,x }. j k jk We say that the quadrilaral {jk} is positively oriented if j < k. The permutation of the two indices would change the orientation to the opposite one. Also in this case, we always write the letters in the brackets in increasing order, so, e.g., in writing {jk} we assume that j < k and avoid the notation {kj} for the negatively oriented quadrilateral −{jk}. The object in Q(A ) which corresponds to the quadrilateral {jk} is the sum of two adjacent N 2-cells, namely • the black triangle T (cid:98)ijk(cid:99) (see Figure 2(a)), i • and the white triangle −(cid:100)ijk(cid:101) (see Figure 2(b)). Here, the map P reads as follows: i x (cid:55)→ x, x (cid:55)→ x , and x (cid:55)→ x . ii ij j jk jk xik xik xjk x x x ii ij ij (a) (b) xik xjk xk xjk x x x x ii ij j (c) (d) Figure 2: Twoadjacent2-cellsofthelatticeQ(A ): (a)blacktriangleT (cid:98)ijk(cid:99),(b)whitetriangle−(cid:100)ijk(cid:101). N i The sum (c) of these 2-cells corresponds to the quadrilateral {jk} (see (d)) in ZN. 7 4. The lattice ZN As three-dimensional elementary cells of ZN, we consider oriented cubes denoted by {jk(cid:96)} := {x,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x }. j k (cid:96) jk j(cid:96) k(cid:96) jk(cid:96) We say that the cube {jk(cid:96)} is positively oriented if j < k < (cid:96). Any permutation of two indices changes the orientation to the opposite one. Also in this case, we always write the letters in the brackets in increasing order, so, e.g., in writing {jk(cid:96)} we assume that j < k < (cid:96) and avoid the notation {kj(cid:96)} or {j(cid:96)k} for the negatively oriented cube −{jk(cid:96)}. The object in Q(A ) which corresponds to the cube {jk(cid:96)} is the sum of three adjacent N 3-cells, namely • the black tetrahedron −T (cid:98)ijk(cid:96)(cid:99) (see Figure 3(a)), i • the octahedron [ijk(cid:96)] (see Figure 3(b)), • and the white tetrahedron −T (cid:100)ijk(cid:96)(cid:101) (see Figure 3(c)). ¯ı It contains sixteen triangles and to every quadrilateral face of {jk(cid:96)} there corresponds a pair of these triangles containing one black and one white triangle. Here, the map P reads as follows: i x (cid:55)→ x, x (cid:55)→ x , x (cid:55)→ x , and x (cid:55)→ x . ii ij j jk jk ¯ıjk(cid:96) jk(cid:96) x k(cid:96) xi(cid:96) xi(cid:96) xj(cid:96) xk(cid:96) x¯ıjk(cid:96) x j(cid:96) x ik x x ik jk x x x x ii ij ij jk (a) (b) (c) xk(cid:96) x¯ıjk(cid:96) xk(cid:96) xjk(cid:96) x x i(cid:96) x (cid:96) x j(cid:96) j(cid:96) x x ik k x x jk jk x x x x ii ij j (d) (e) Figure 3: Three adjacent 3-cells of the lattice Q(A ): (a) black tetrahedron −T (cid:98)ijk(cid:96)(cid:99), (b) octahedron N i [ijk(cid:96)],(c)whitetetrahedron−T (cid:100)ijk(cid:96)(cid:101). Thesum(d)ofthese3-cellscorrespondstoacube(e). ¯ı Also in this case there is an easy recipe to obtain the orientation of the facets of an (oriented) cube: on every index between the brackets we put alternately a “+” and a “−” starting 8 5. Discrete 2-forms on ZN with a “+” on the last index. Then we get each facet by deleting one index and putting the corresponding sign in front of the bracket. For instance, the cube +−+ {j k (cid:96)} hasthesixfacets: thequadrilaterals{jk},−{j(cid:96)},{k(cid:96)},andtheoppositeones−T {jk},T {j(cid:96)}, (cid:96) k and −T {k(cid:96)}. j As a consequence of Definition 2.2, in each flower in ZN, every quadrilateral has exactly two adjacent quadrilaterals. For the proof of the following theorem, which is the analogue of Theorem 3.1, we refer to [BPS14]. Theorem 4.1. The flower at any interior vertex of any 2-manifold in ZN can be represented as a sum of 3D corners in ZN+1. 5. Discrete 2-forms on ZN Let L be a discrete 2-form on ZN. The exterior derivative dL is a discrete 3-form whose value at any cube in ZN is the action functional of L on the 2-manifold consisting of the facets of the cube: Sjk(cid:96) := dL({jk(cid:96)}) = L({jk})+L(−{j(cid:96)})+L({k(cid:96)})+L(−T {jk})+L(T {j(cid:96)})+L(−T {k(cid:96)}). (cid:96) k j Accordingly, the Euler-Lagrange equations on the cube {jk(cid:96)} are given by ∂Sjk(cid:96) = 0, ∂x ∂Sjk(cid:96) ∂Sjk(cid:96) ∂Sjk(cid:96) = 0, = 0, = 0, ∂x ∂x ∂x j k (cid:96) (6) ∂Sjk(cid:96) ∂Sjk(cid:96) ∂Sjk(cid:96) = 0, = 0, = 0, ∂x ∂x ∂x jk j(cid:96) k(cid:96) ∂Sjk(cid:96) = 0. ∂x jk(cid:96) They are called corner equations. The following statement is an immediate consequence of Theorem 4.1: Theorem 5.1. For every discrete 2-form on ZN and every 2-manifold in ZN all corresponding Euler-Lagrange equations can be written as a sum of corner equations. We are interested in discrete 2-forms L defined as L := (P ) L, i (cid:63) whereLisadiscrete2-formontherootlatticeQ(A )asspecifiedin(2). Therefore,Levaluated N at the quadrilateral {jk} reads as L({jk}) = ((P ) L)(P (T (cid:98)ijk(cid:99)−(cid:100)ijk(cid:101))) i (cid:63) i i = (P ) (L(T (cid:98)ijk(cid:99))−L((cid:100)ijk(cid:101))) i (cid:63) i (cid:124) (cid:123)(cid:122) (cid:125) =0 = (P ) (Λij([ij])+Λik(−[ik])+Λjk([jk])). i (cid:63) 9 5. Discrete 2-forms on ZN For this discrete 2-form, one can see after a simple computation that the exterior derivative is given by Sjk(cid:96) = dL({jk(cid:96)}) = (P ) (Λij(T [ij])+Λik(−T [ik])+Λjk(T [jk]) i (cid:63) (cid:96) (cid:96) (cid:96) +Λij(−T [ij])+Λi(cid:96)(T [i(cid:96)])+Λj(cid:96)(−T [j(cid:96)]) k k k +Λik(T [ik])+Λi(cid:96)(−T [i(cid:96)])+Λk(cid:96)(T [k(cid:96)]) j j j +Λjk(−T [jk])+Λj(cid:96)(T [j(cid:96)])+Λk(cid:96)(−T [k(cid:96)])) i i i = (P ) dL([ijk(cid:96)]) i (cid:63) Therefore, there are no corner equations on the cube {jk(cid:96)} centered at x and x since Sjk(cid:96) jk(cid:96) does not depend on these two variables. The remaining corner equations from (6) are given by ∂Sjk(cid:96) ∂Sijk(cid:96) E := = (P ) = (P ) E (7) j i (cid:63) i (cid:63) ij ∂x ∂x j ij and ∂Sjk(cid:96) ∂Sijk(cid:96) E := = (P ) = (P ) E . (8) k(cid:96) i (cid:63) i (cid:63) k(cid:96) ∂x ∂x k(cid:96) k(cid:96) The system of six corner equations on a cube {jk(cid:96)} is called consistent if it has the minimal possible rank 2, i.e., exactly two equations are independent. Also in this case, it is obvious that Sjk(cid:96) is constant on solutions of (7), (8). Again, the vanishing of this constant, i.e. the closedness of the 2-form, can be seen as a criterion of integrability for pluri-Lagrangian systems (see [BPS14, BPS15a] for more explanations). Example 5.2. Consider the 2-form L = (P ) L, where the 1-forms Λij are defined as in i (cid:63) Example 3.2, i.e., Λij([ij]) := (αi−αj)log|x −x | i j with αi,αj ∈ R. Then equations (7) and (8) read as αi−αk αi−α(cid:96) αj −αk αj −α(cid:96) − − + = 0 (9) x −x x −x x −x x −x j jk j j(cid:96) j k j (cid:96) and αi−αk αj −αk αi−α(cid:96) αj −α(cid:96) − − + = 0. (10) x −x x −x x −x x −x (cid:96) k(cid:96) j(cid:96) k(cid:96) k k(cid:96) jk k(cid:96) For the proof of the consistency of the system of corner equations as well as of the closedness of the corresponding 2-form, we refer to [BPS14, BPS15b]. Obviously, the consistency of this system of corner equations and the closedness of the corresponding 2-form are equivalent to those in Example 3.2. 10

Two-dimensional variational systems on the root lattice $Q(A_{N})$

Similar Two-dimensional variational systems on the root lattice $Q(A_{N})$